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BIOLOGY 


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https://archive.org/details/anatomyinitsrela00mccl_0 


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Photograph  from  the  cast  of  a statue  of  “ Diskoholus,”  now  in  the  Palazzo-Messini  at 
Rome,  with  a model  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue. 

Compare  f’lates  loo  and  loi. 


ANATOMY 


In  its  Relation  to  Art 

An  exposition  of  the  bones  and  muscles  of  the  human 
body  with  especial  reference  to  their  influence 
upon  its  actions  and  external  form 

BY 

GEORGE  McClellan,  m.  d. 

Professor  of  Anatomy  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  etc.,  etc. 
Author  of  McClellan’s  Regional  Anatomy,  and 
the  Anatomy  of  Children 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  THREE  HUNDRED  AND  THIRTY-EIGHT 
ORIGINAL  DRAWINGS  AND  PHOTOGRAPHS  MADE  BY  THE  AUTHOR 
AND  EXPRESSLY  PREPARED  FOR  THIS  WORK 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


“ Whatever  excuse  may  be  made  for  the  Artist  in  not  ieaching  Anatomy,  there  can  be  none 
offered  for  his  not  learning  it.”—  From  “ Elements  of  Art,”  by  M.  A.  Shee,  R.  A. 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

W.  B.  SAUNDERS  & COMPANY 
1901 


I . ' 1 


Copyright,  igoo 

By  GEORGE  McCLELLAN,  M.  D. 


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Thin  honk  is  affectionately  dedicated 
to  my  wife 

HARRIET  HARE  McCLEI.LAX 

whose  sympathy  and  encouragement  have 
made  possible  this  adaptation 
of  anatomy  to  art. 


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PREFACE. 


N exhaustive  knowledge  of  anatomy,  such  as  may  only  be  obtained 
in  the  dissecting-room,  is  not  necessary  for  the  art-student.  It 
would  little  avail  him  to  spend  a long  time  in  endeavoring  to 
understand  the  minute  and  complicated  relations  of  the  ligaments 
and  tendons,  of  internal  organs  and  deep  muscular  structures,  because  scientific 
anatomical  study,  while  not  necessarily  detrimental  to  artistic  work,  may  mis- 
lead the  artist.  This  is  often  painfully  illustrated  in  modern  sculpture,  by  an 
exaggerated  representation  of  the  anatomy  which  shows  that  the  artist,  with 
the  intention  of  being  realistic,  has  familiarized  himself  with  the  appearances 
of  the  dead  body,  and  not  drawn  conclusions  by  comparison  with  living 
models.  It  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  greater  perfection  of  living  models  as 
well  as  the  more  frequent  opportunity  for  studying  them  that  ancient  sculp- 
ture is  so  excellent,  and  those  who  have  approached  nearest  to  the  work  of 
the  great  masters  have  understood  that  the  real  as  well  as  the  ideal  form  can 
be  produced  with  truthfulness  only  after  educated  observation. 

A general  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  essential  and  may  be  intelligently  ac- 
quired, so  that  it  will  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  art-student,  provided  it  is  kept 
within  the  scope  of  its  object,  which  should  be  its  adaptation  to  the  under- 
standing and  representation  of  actions  or  of  form. 

Anatomy  for  art  purposes  should  never  be  obtrusive.  It  should  be  em- 
ployed as  a means  of  analysis  and  interpretation  of  motion  and  form,  and  thus 
used  will  serve  to  encourage  keener  powers  of  observation  upon  which  excellence 
in  representation  so  much  depends. 


5 


Preface. 


In  venturing  to  contribute  another  book  to  the  long  list  of  those  which  have 
preceded  this,  the  author  wishes  to  observe  that  too  much  stress  has  often  been 
laid  upon  anatomical  details,  and  as  a result  the  tendency  has  been  to  exagger- 
ate them  upon  canvas  or  in  marble.  There  may  be  some  art-students  who  are 
able  to  sift  and  discriminate  among  facts  obtained  by  the  most  diligent  and 
exact  methods:  but  the  generality  of  them  are  probably  not  unlike  other 
students  and  are  too  prone  to  wish  to  exhibit  all  they  know,  so  that  they 
require  some  guidance  in  acquiring  information  and  suggestion  as  to  how 
best  to  use  it. 

The  present  work  is  based  upon  a system  adopted  in  the  course  of  lec- 
tures at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  where,  as  Professor  of 
Anatomy  for  twelve  years,  the  author  has  had  especial  experience  of  the  needs 
of  art-students.  The  descriptive  matter  relating  to  the  bones  and  muscles  is 
accurate  although  not  exhaustive:  but  only  those  parts  are  explained  which 
would  seem  worth  dwelling  upon  for  art  application.  The  subtle  complex 
changes  of  the  form  of  the  human  body  when  in  motion  are  most  difficult  to 
comprehend,  and  can  only  be  explained  through  a knowledge  of  its  structure. 

In  order  to  bring  the  subject  within  easy  comprehension  of  all,  whether 
familiar  or  not  with  scientific  nomenclature,  the  text  is  rendered  in  clear 
and  simple  language,  and  all  technical  phraseology  which  could  not  be  avoided 
is  translated. 

In  no  other  department  of  study  is  there  greater  need  for  the  mind  to  be 
educated  through  the  eye,  and  therefore  much  time  and  thought  have  been  ex- 
pended upon  the  illustrations  which  are  entirely  original.  They  consist  of  pho- 
tographs from  selected  specimens  and  models  as  well  as  drawings  carefully  made 
to  the  same  scale.  The  advantage  of  the  arrangement  of  the  illustrations 
in  groups  for  critical  comparison  is  that  the  eye  may  become  accustomed  to 
seeing  much  which  without  it  might  escape  attention,  and  the  faculty  of  per- 
ception can  be  cultivated  so  that  the  judgment  is  broadened  in  its  grasp  of 
details.  This  is  a quality  to  be  encouraged  in  artists,  especially  in  drawing 

6 


Preface. 


from  the  life,  for  often  their  copies,  while  not  devoid  of  artistic  merit,  show 
a lack  of  thorough  comprehension  of  what  they  ought  to  see.  In  attempting 
to  direct  the  observation  of  students,  however,  it  is  not  intended  to  teach 
them  to  see  only  what  they  are  told  to  see  or  to  see  through  the  eyes  of 
others.  It  is  the  object  of  this  book  to  assist  artists  to  see  for  themselves. 

In  attempting  to  illustrate  with  his  own  pencil,  the  author  makes  no  preten- 
sion to  enter  the  field  of  an  artist,  as  it  is  only  claimed  that  the  drawings  are 
diagrammatic  expositions  of  the  anatomy  of  the  human  body  where  photo- 
graphs would  not  serve  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  subject  to  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  student  for  whom  it  is  designed.  Of  the  work  done  with  his  camera 
he  is  more  confident,  and  hopes  that  it  may  be  as  instructive  to  others  as  it  has 
been  interesting  to  him. 

The  admirable  reproductions  of  the  drawings  and  photographs  are  as  nearly 
facsimile  of  the  author’s  originals  as  they  could  be,  and  for  the  faithfulness  of 
these  copies  he  is  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  1.  Thompson  of  the  Photo-Chromotype 
Engraving  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  The  printing  of  the  text  matter  and  illustra- 
tions has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Alfred  M.  Slocum  Co.  To  these  gentle- 
men the  author  expresses  his  grateful  appreciation  for  their  interest  and  pains- 
taking care  throughout  the  manufacture  of  the  book. 


George  McClellan. 


Broad  and  Spruce  Streets, 

Philadelphia,  October,  1900. 


7 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Pis'.  1. 


< < 


2. 


Fig.  L 

“ 2. 


Fig.  I. 

“ 2. 


Fig. 


“ 2. 


Fig.  I. 

“ 2. 


Fig.  t. 


2. 


Fig.  I. 
“ 2. 
“ 3. 
“ 4. 
“ 5. 
“ 6. 


PLATE  1. 

Photograph  of  a man  aged  24  years  ; height,  5 feet  8 inches  ; weight,  145  pounds 
{from  the  front). 

Photograph  of  the  same  man  as  in  Fig.  i {left  side). 

PLATE  2. 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  (with  outline)  of  a man  aged  37  years  ; height,  6 feel 
I inch  {from  the  front). 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man  (with  outline),  same  as  Fig.  i {left  side). 

PLATE  3. 

Photograph  of  a woman  aged  23  years  ; height,  5 feet  4%  inches  {from  the  front). 
Photograph  of  a woman  {left  side). 

PLATE  4. 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a woman  (with  outline)  ; height,  5 feet  4)^  inches  {from 
the  front). 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a woman  (with  outline),  same  as  in  Fig.  i {left  side), 

PLATE  5. 

Photograph  of  the  back  of  a man,  same  as  in  Plate  I. 

Photograph  of  the  back  of  a woman,  same  as  in  Plate  III. 

PLATE  6. 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man  (with  outline),  same  as  in  Plate  II  {from  the 
back'). 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a woman  (with  outline),  same  as  in  Plate  IV  {from 
the  back). 

PLATE  7. 

The  bones  of  the  right  shoulder  joint  ( from  the  front). 

The  ligaments  of  the  right  shoulder  joint  {from  the  front). 

The  ligaments  of  the  right  shoulder  joint  ( from  the  back). 

The  right  hip  joint  {from  the  back). 

The  bones  of  the  right  hip  joint  ( from  the  front). 

The  right  hip  joint  {from  the  front). 


I 


Usl  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  8. 

Fig.  U The  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  in  extension  {from  the  front) . 

“ 2,  The  ligaments  of  the  left  elbow  joint  ( from  the  ftont). 

“ 3.  The  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  in  extension  {from  the  back). 

“ 4,  The  ligaments  of  the  left  elbow  joint  {from  the  back). 

“ 5.  The  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  flexed  at  a right  angle  (/row snfe). 

“ 5.  The  ligaments  connecting  the  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  in  same  position  as  Fig.  5. 

“ 7.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  in  extension  {from  the  front). 

“ 8.  The  ligaments  of  the  right  knee  joint  {from  the  front). 

“ 9.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  in  extension  {from  the  back). 

“ jQ^  The  ligaments  of  the  right  knee  joint  {from  the  back). 

PLATE  9. 

Fig.  I.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  in  extension  {from  the  outet  side). 

“ 2.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  in  extension  (from  the  inner  side). 

“ 3.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  flexed  at  a right  angle  {from  the  outer  side). 

“ 4’.  The  hones  of  the  right  knee  joint  flexed  at  a right  angle  { from  the  inner  side). 

5!  The  skeleton  of  the  right  wrist  and  hand,  showing  the  ligaments  upon  the  palmar 

surface. 

'■  6.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  wrist  and  hand,  showing  the  ligaments  upon  the  dorsal 
surface. 

“ 7.  The  bones,  with  the  ligaments  of  the  right  ankle  joint  {from  the  outei  side). 

“ 8.  The  bones,  with  the  ligaments  of  the  right  ankle  joint  {from  the  inner  side). 


Fig.  L 
“ 2. 
“ 3. 

“ 4. 

“ 5. 

“ 6. 
“ 7. 

“ 8. 
“ 9. 

“ to. 

“ It. 
“ 12. 


Fig.  I. 


“ 2. 


3. 


PLATE  10. 

The  frontal  bone. 

The  frontal  bone  {left  side). 

The  occipital  bone. 

The  left  parietal  bone. 

The  two  parietal  bones  united. 

The  occipital  bone  {left  side). 

The  left  temporal  bone. 

The  lower  jaw  bone  of  an  infant  at  birth. 
The  lower  jaw  bone  of  an  adult. 

The  lower  jaw  bone  of  an  aged  person. 
The  sphenoid  bone  {from  the  front). 

The  sphenoid  and  occipital  bones  united. 


PLATE  11. 

The  bones  of  an  European  face,  with  outline  (left  side),  showing  the  relation  of  the 

nasal  bones  which  contribute  to  the  Grecian  profile.  , - . 

The  hones  of  an  European  face,  with  outline  {left  side),  showing  the  relation  of  the 

nasal  bones  which  contribute  to  the  Roman  profile.  . , 

The  bones  of  an  African  face,  with  outline  {left  side),  showing  the  relation  0 le 

nasal  bones.  {Contimi^d) 


2 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Fig.  4. 
“ 5. 

“ 6. 
“ 7. 

“ 8. 
“ 9. 

“ 10. 
“ JI. 
“ M. 
“ 13. 

‘ H 


PLATE  1],  ( Continued  ) 

The  left  nasal  bone. 

The  left  upper  jaw. 

I'he  upper  and  lower  jaw  bones  in  apposition  {from  the  front). 
The  left  malar  or  cheek  bone  {from  the  side). 

The  right  malar  or  cheek  bone  ( from  the  side) 

1 he  first  cervical  or  Atlas  vertebra  ( from  above). 

I'he  second  cervical  vertebra. 

The  second  cervical  vertebra  {right  side) . 

I he  seventh  cervical  vertebra,  or  vertebra  prominens. 

A thoracic  vertebra. 

A lumbar  vertebra. 


Fig:,  f. 

“ 2. 
“ 3. 
“ 4. 

“ 5. 
“ 6. 
“ 7. 


Fig.  I. 
“ 2. 
“ 3. 
“ 4. 

“ 5. 
“ 6. 


Fig.  f. 
“ 2. 
“ 3. 


“ 4. 
“ 5. 
“ 6. 


PLATE  12. 

Diagram  showing  the  nasal  cartilages  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the  face  ( from 
the  front). 

The  nasal  cartilages  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the  face  {from  the  left  side). 

The  nasal  cartilages  {from  below). 

Diagram  showing,  on  the  right  side,  the  muscles  of  the  eye-ball;  on  the  left  the 
elevator  muscle  of  the  upper  eye-lid.  ’ 

Diagram  showing  the  muscles  of  the  left  eye-ball. (/rom  the  side). 

Diagram  showing  the  left  eye  {from  the  side). 

Diagram  showing  the  left  eye,  with  fold  of  the  skin  over  the  upper  eye-M{  from  the 
front). 


PLATE  1.3. 

Photograph  of, the  skull  of  an  European  male,  aged  33  years  {from  the  front). 
Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in  Fig.  i ( from  the  back). 

Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in  Figs,  i and  2 {from  the  left  side). 

Photograph  of  an  African  skull  {from  above). 

Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in  Fig.  4 {from  below). 

Photograph  of  the  interior  of  an  adult  male  European  skull  {section  from  before  backward). 


PLATE  14. 

Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult  male  European,  aged  37  years  fright  side). 

Photograph  of  an  adult  male  African  {right  side). 

Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult  male  ourang  outang  {right  side). 

N.  B.— These  figures  are  arranged  to  show  the  comparative  degree  of  the  facial 
angle. 

Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  infant  at  birth  {from  the  front). 

Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in  Fig.  4 {left  side). 

Photoyaph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult  male  European,  aged  85  years,  showing  the 
obliteration  of  the  sutures  and  the  shape  of  the  jaw  bones  after  the  entire  series 
of  the  teeth  have  fallen  out  feft  side). 


3 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  15. 

Fi».  J.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  head,  face  and  neck  (right  side). 

“ 2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  head,  face  and  neck  (from  the  front). 

“ 3.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  about  the  eye-lids  (left  side). 

“ 4.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  at  the  wing  of  the  nose  and  upper  lip  (left  side). 

“ 5.  Diagram  showing  the  upper  portion  of  the  platysma  muscle  blending  with  the  other 
muscles  at  the  corner  of  the  mouth  (left  side). 

“ 6.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  lip  (left  side). 

“ 7.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  about  the  mouth  and  lower  lip  {left  side). 

PLATE  16. 

Fig.  I.  The  muscles  of  the  head  and  face  upon  the  left  side  whose  action  produce  the  intel- 
lectual expressions. 

“ 2.  The  left  side  of  the  head  and  face  showing  the  muscles  whose  action  produce  the 
expressions  peculiarly  animal. 

PLATE  17. 

Fig.  1.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  laughter. 

“ 2.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in  laughter. 

“ 3.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  astonishment. 

“ 4.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in  astonishment. 

“ 5.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  horror. 

“ 6.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in  horror. 

PLATE  18. 

Fig.  1.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  anger. 

“ 2.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in  anger. 

“ 3.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  disgust. 

“ 4.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in  disgust. 

“ 5.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  grief. 

" 6.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in  grief. 

PLATE  19. 

Diagram  of  the  skeleton  of  the  neck  on  the  right  side  (from  a photograph). 

PLATE  20. 

Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  from  the  right  side. 

PLATE  21. 

Fig.  1.  Diagram  of  the  deeper  structures  of  the  neck. 

“ 2.  Diagram  showing  a vertical  section  of  the  head,  face  and  neck. 

N.  B. — The  section  in  Fig.  2 is  not  through  the  brain,  the  outer  surface  of  which 
is  represented. 


4 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  22. 

Fig-.  J.  Photograph  of  the  head  and  shoulders  of  a woman  with  arms  raised  to  show  the 
axillary  folds. 

2.  Photograph  of  the  head  and  shoulders  of  a woman  with  the  arms  depressed  to  show 
the  root  of  the  neck. 

“ 3.  Photograph  of  a girl’s  head  bent  backward  to  show  the  left  sterno-mastoid  muscle. 

4.  Photograph  of  a girl’s  head  bent  backward  to  show  the  neck  (from  the  front). 

PLATE  23. 

Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  with  the  feet  together  and  the  trunk  turned  forcibly  to 
the  left. 

2.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  with  the  feet  in  same  position  as  Fig.  i,  and  the  trunk 

turned  forcibly  to  the  right. 

3.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  with  the  body  bent  backward  and  the  arms  extended 

showing  the  curvature  at  the  loins  and  the  folds  of  the  arm-pit  on  the  right  side. 

4.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  and  stooping  forward  with  the  arms  extended  to  show 

the  curvature  of  the  back.- 

PLATE  24. 

Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  the  head,  neck  and  trunk  (right  side). 

2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  head,  face,  neck  and  trunk  (right  side). 

PLATE  2.5. 

Photograph  of  the  axial  skeleton  of  an  European  male,  aged  33  years  (from  the  front). 

PLATE  2fi 

Diagram  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  front  of  the  torso. 

PLATE  27 

Fig.  I.  Diagram  of  the  thorax  (from  the  front),  showing  the  greater  and  lesser  pectoral  and 
the  sub-clavius  muscles. 

2.  Diagram  of  the  deeper  muscles  of  the  front  of  the  neck.  The  longus  colli  and  scaleni 
muscles. 

PLATE  28. 

Fig.  I.  Diagram  of  the  front  of  the  thorax  showing  the  attachment  of  the  serratus  magnus 
and  insertion  of  the  coraco-brachialis,  sub-scapularis  and  supra-spinatus  muscles. 

2.  The  scapula  drawn  outward  to  show  the  attachments  of  the  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

3.  Same  as  Fig.  2,  with  the  scapula  in  proper  relation  to  the  thorax. 

PLATE  29. 

Fig.  I.  The  landmarks  of  the  region  of  the  abdomen  (from  the  front). 

2.  The  landmarks  of  the  region  of  the  abdomen  (from  the  right  side). 

3.  Same  as  Fig.  2,  with  the  muscles. 


5 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Fig. 

“ 2. 


Fig:, 


( < 


2. 


Fig:.  I. 

“ 2. 


Fig:,  t. 


" 2. 


Fig.  I. 
“ 2. 
" 3. 
“ 4. 
“ 5. 
“ 6. 
“ 7. 
“ 8. 


PLATE  30. 

Diagram  of  the  deeper  muscles  of  the  anterior  abdominal  wall. 

Diagram  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  abdominal  wall. 

PLATE  31. 

Photograph  of  a male  skeleton  (with  outline).  The  sternum  and  front  portions  of  the 
ribs  are  removed  and  the  viscera  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  inserted  diagram- 
atically  to  show  their  relations  to  the  diaphragm. 

Photograph  of  a male  skeleton  (without  outline),  to  be  compared  with  Fig.  i. 

PLATE  32. 

Diagram  showing  the  attachments  of  the  diaphragm. 

Diagram  showing  the  intercostal  muscles. 

PLATE  33. 

Photograph  of  the  axial  skeleton  of  an  European  male,  aged  33  years  {from  the  bach). 

PLATE  34. 

Diagram  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  torso. 

PLATE  3.5. 

Diagram  of  the  back  of  the  thorax,  showing  the  attachments  of  the  trapezius  muscle 
on  the  left  side,  and  levator  anguli  scapulae  and  rhomboideus  major  and  minor 
muscles  on  the  right  side. 

Diagram  showing  the  attachments  of  the  deeper  muscles  at  the  back  of  the  neck. 


PLATE  36. 

Diagram  of  the  back  of  the  trunk,  showing  the  attachments  of  the  latissimus  dorsi 
and  complexus  muscles  on  the  left  side,  and  the  biventer  cervicis  and  the  serrati 
postici  muscles  on  the  right  side. 

PLATE  37. 

Diagram  of  the  back  of  the  trunk,  showing  the  attachments  of  the  deep  spinal  muscles 
on  the  left  side  and  the  erector  spinae  mass  of  muscles  on  the  right  side. 


The  right  scapula  (front). 

The  right  scapula  (side). 

The  right  scapula  (back). 

The  right  clavicle  (front). 

The  right  clavicle  (from  above). 
The  right  humerus  (front). 

The  right  humerus  (bach). 

The  right  humerus  (outer  side). 
N.  B. 


PLATE  .38. 

Fig.  9. 
“ 10. 
“ n. 

“ J2. 

“ 13. 
“ H. 
“ f5. 


The  right  humerus  (inner  side\ 

The  sternum  (front). 

The  sternum  (right  side). 

The  first  and  second  cervical  vertebra 
in  apposition. 

The  fifth  cervical  vertebra. 

The  shoulder  girdle. 

The  pelvic  girdle. 


The  above  are  drawings  from  photographs. 
6 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Fig.  I. 


“ 2. 


Fig.  X. 

“ 2. 


Fig.  I. 

“ 2. 
'*  3. 
“ 4. 


Fig.  t. 


“ 2. 


Fig.  I. 


“ 2. 


Fig.  t. 


“ 2 


Fig.  I. 

“ 2. 


PLATE  39. 

The  skeleton  of  the  entire  right  upper  extremity,  with  outline  {from  the  bach),  drawn 
from  a photograph. 

The  skeleton  of  the  entire  right  upper  extremity,  with  outline  (from  the  front),  drawn 
from  a photograph. 

PLATE  40. 

Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  right  upper  extremity  (from  the  back). 

Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  right  upper  extremity  (from  the  front). 

PLATE  41. 

The  muscles  of  the  right  scapula. 

I'he  right  deltoid  muscle  (from  the  back). 

The  right  deltoid  muscle  (from  the  outer  side). 

The  right  deltoid  muscle  ( from  the  front). 

PLATE  42. 

Photograph  of  a man,  with  the  right  arm  extended,  holding  a heavy  dumb-bell  show- 
ing the  surface  markings  (from  the  front). 

Photograph  of  a man  in  same  position  as  Fig.  i,  showing  the  surface  markings  ( from 
the  bach). 

PLATE  43. 

Diagram  of  the  skeleton  of  the  trunk  with  the  right  arm  showing  the  attachments  of 
the  biceps  muscle,' the  quadratus  lumborum,  gluteus  minimus  and  pyriformis 
muscles. 

Diagram  showing  the  attachments  of  the  brachialis  anticus  muscle  and  the  ilio-psoas 
muscle. 

PLATE  44. 

Diagram  of  the  right  side  of  the  trunk  showing  the  attachments  of  the  triceps  muscle 
and  the  quadratus  lumborum  and  gluteus  medius  and  the  pyriformis,  two  gemelli 
and  quadratus  femoris  muscles. 

Diagram  of  the  fore-arm  and  hand  showing  the  extensor  communis  digitorum  muscle. 

PLATE  45. 

Diagrams  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  fore-arm  and  hand  with  the  muscles  of  the  fore- 
arm superposed. 

The  two  pronator  muscles.  Fig.  3.  The  two  flexor  muscles  of  the  wrist. 

The  long  supinator  muscle.  “ 4.  The  long  flexor  muscle  of  the  thumb. 


PLATE  46. 

Diagram  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  fore-arm  and  hand  with  the  muscles  superposed. 
Fig.  f.  1 superficial  flexor  muscle  of  the  fingers. 

“ 2.  The  deep  flexor  muscle  of  the  fingers. 

“ 3.  The  three  extensor  muscles  of  the  wrist. 

“ 4.  The  extensor  muscle  of  the  index  finger^and  the  three  extensor  muscles  of  the  thumb. 


/ 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  47. 

Diagrams  of  the  skeleton  of  the  fore-arm  and  hand  in  various  degrees  of  pronation 
(from  photographs). 

Fig.  L The  radius  twisted  over  the  ulna  in  pronation  {from  the  bach). 

“ 2.  The  bones  in  the  same  relative  position  as  in  Fig.  i {from  the  inner  side). 

“ 3.  The  radius  twisted  over  the  ulna  in  pronation,  the  index  finger  extended  as  in  pointing 
{frofn  the  inner  side). 

“ 4.  The  bones  in  the  same  relative  position  as  in  Fig.  i {from  the  palmar  surface). 

PLATE  48. 

Fig.  I.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  fore-arm  and  hand  {from  the  bach),  with  the  index  finger 
pointing  (from  a photograph). 

“ 2.  The  palmar  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  showing  the  abductor  and 
adductor  muscles  of  the  thumb,  and  abductor  muscle  of  the  little  finger. 

“ 3.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  showing  the  opponens  muscles  of  the  thumb  and 
little  finger. 

“ 4.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  showing  the  three  palmar  interosseous  muscles. 

“ 5.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  showing  the  four  dorsal  interosseous  muscles. 

PLATE  49. 

Fig.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  on  the  back  of  the  right  hand  and  wrist. 

“ 2.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  back  of  the  hand  and  wrist,  with 
outline,  to  be  compared  with  Fig.  i. 

“ 3.  Diagram  showing  all  the  tendons  and  muscles  on  the  palmar  surface  on  the  right  hand. 

“ 4.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand,  with  outline,  palmar 
surface,  to  be  compared  with  Fig.  3. 

PLATE  50. 

Fig.  Diagram  showing  the  relations  of  the  interosseous  muscles  to  the  superficial  flexor 
tendons  on  the  palm  of  the  right  hand. 

“ 2.  Diagram  showing  the  palmar  fascia  on  the  right  hand. 

“ 3.  Drawing  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  and  wrist  with  the  index  finger  pointing,  to 
be  compared  with  Fig.  4. 

" 4.  Drawing  of  the  right  hand  as  in  Fig.  3,  showing  the  relations  of  the  tendons  and 
muscles  to  the  index  finger  and  thumb. 

PLATE  51. 

Fig.  Photograph  of  the  palmar  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a woman. 

“ 2.  Photograph  of  the  palmar  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a man. 

“ 3.  Photograph  of  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a woman. 

“ 4.  Photograph  of  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a man. 

“ 5.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a woman  {inner  side). 

“ 6.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a woman  {outer  side\ 

8 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  52. 

Photographs  of  a man’s  hand  in  various  positions. 

Fig.  I.  I'he  palmar  surface  of  the  right  liand  with  the  fingers  outstretched  to  show  the  sur- 
face markings. 

“ 2.  t he  dorsal  surface  of  the  right  liand,  same  as  Fig.  i. 

“ 3.  The  thumb  side  of  the  right  hand  as  in  an  ordinary  gesture. 

“ 4*.  The  palmar  surface  of  the  same  hand  as  in  Fig.  3,  showing  the  relations  of  the  fingers 
“ 5.  The  thumb  side  of  the  right  hand  with  the  inde.x  finger  extended  as  in  pointing. 

“ 6.  The  dorsal  surface  of  the  hand  in  the  same  position  as  in  Fig.  5. 

PLATE  53. 

Photographs  of  a man’s  hand  in  various  positions. 

Fig.  f.  The  right  hand  in  a receptive  position,  showing  the  markings  on  the  palmar  surface. 

“ 2.  The  thumb  and  back  view  of  the  left  hand  extended  as  in  surprise. 

“ 3.  The  right  hand  with  the  fingers  closed  on  the  palm  as  in  grasping. 

“ 4*.  The  palmar  surface  of  the  right  hand  with  the  fingers  separated  as  in  the  attitude  of 
one  imploring. 

“ 5.  The  right  hand  as  in  pressing  against  an  object  to  assist  in  maintaining  equilibrium. 

“ 6.  The  back  of  the  right  hand  extended  as  in  negation. 

PLATE  54. 

Fig.  L The  female  pelvis  {from  above). 

“ 2.  'Xhe  ion\a\e  ^eW\s  {from  the  right  side). 

“ 3.  The  right  femur,  or  thigh  bone  {from  i he  front). 

“ 4,  The  right  femur  {from  the  bach). 

“ 5.  The  xxght  iemux  {from  the  outer  side). 

“ 6.  The  right  {exx\i\x  {from  the  inner  side). 

N.  B.— The  above  are  drawings  from  Photographs. 

PLATE  55. 

Fig.  J.  The  male  pelvis  {from  above). 

“ 2.  The  male  pelvis  {from  the  right  side). 

“ 3.  The  patella  and  bones  of  the  leg,  tibia  and  fibula  { from  the  front). 

“ 4.  The  patella,  tibia  and  fibula  (/row 

“ 5.  The  patella,  tibia  and  fibula  (from  the  outer  side). 

“ 6.  The  patella,  tibia  and  fibula  {from  the  inner  side). 

N.  B. — The  above  are  drawings  from  photographs. 

PLATE  56. 

Fig.  t.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  front  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip,  thigh  and 
knee,  with  outline. 

“ 2.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip,  thigh  and  knee,  with 
outline. 


9 


List  of  IlLustrations. 


Fig. 

“ 2. 


Fig.  I. 


“ 2. 


Fig. 


“ 2. 


Fig. 


“ 2. 


Fig.  L 

“ 2. 


Fig.  J. 


“ 2. 


Fig.  t. 
“ 2. 
“ 3. 


PLATE  57. 

Diagram  showing  the  two  vasti  and  obturator  externus  muscles  in  relation  to  the 
skeleton  of  the  right  hip,  thigh  and  knee. 

Diagram  showing  the  tensor  vagina?  femoris,  the  rectus  femoris  and  the  gracilis 
muscles  in  relation  to  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip,  thigh  and  knee. 

PLATE  58. 

Diagram  showing  the  gluteus  minimis  and  adductor  muscles  of  the  right  thigh  in  rela- 
tion to  the  skeleton. 

Diagram  showing  all  the  muscles  of  the  right  thigh  in  relation  to  the  skeleton  {from 
the  front). 

PLATE  59. 

Diagram  showing  the  external  rotator  muscles  of  the  hip,  and  the  great  adductor 
muscle  of  the  thigh  in  relation  to  the  skeleton  (from  the  hack). 

Diagram  showing  the  gluteus  medius  muscle  and  the  attachments  of  the  two  vasti 
muscles  on  the  back  of  the  right  thigh. 


PLATE  60. 

Diagram  showing  the  hamstring  muscles  and  tendons  on  the  back  of  the  right  thigh 
and  knee. 

Diagram  showing  all  the  muscles  of  the  right  hip  and  thigh  (from  the  hack). 

PLATE  61. 

Drawings  from  photographs  of  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip, 
thigh  and  knee,  with  outline. 


PLATE  62. 

Diagram  of  all  the  muscles  on  the  outer  side  of  the  right  thigh. 

Diagram  of  all  the  muscles  on  the  inner  side  of  the  right  thigh. 

PLATE  63. 

Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and  foot  (from  the 
front). 

Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and  foot  (from  the 
back). 

PLATE  64. 

Diagrams  of  the  muscles  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the  right  leg  (from  the  front). 

The  attachments  of  the  anterior  tibial  muscle. 

The  attachments  of  the  chief  extensor  muscle  of  the  great  toe. 

The  attachments  of  the  long  extensor  muscle  of  the  toes. 

lO 


List  of  IHiistnitions. 


PLATE  65. 

Diagrams  of  tlie  muscles  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the  right  leg  { froiii  the  back). 

Fig.  J.  The  attachments  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  leg. 

**  2.  The  attachments  of  the  deeper  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  leg. 

**  3.  The  attachments  of  the  deeper  muscles  of  the  leg. 

PLATE  66. 

Fig.  I.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and  foot,  with  outline  { from  the  outer  sUe). 

“ 2.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and  foot,  with  outline  (from  the  inner  side). 

" 3.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  ankle  and  foot  { from  above). 

N.  B. — The  above  are  drawings  from  photographs. 

PLATE  67. 

Fig.  f.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  on  the  outside  of  the  right  leg  and  ankle. 

**  2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  on  the  inside  of  the  right  leg  and  ankle. 

**  3.  The  tendons  on  the  front  of  the  right  ankle  and  foot. 

PLATE  68. 

Fig.  f.  Pla  ntar  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  foot,  with  outline  (from  a photograph^ 

“ 2.  The  abductor  and  adductor  muscles  of  the  great  toe. 

“ 3.  The  short  flexor  muscles  of  the  great  and  little  toes. 

“ 4.  The  relation  of  the  principal  flexor  tendons  in  the  sole  of  the  right  foot. 

“ 5.  The  accessory  and  lumbrical  muscles  in  the  sole  of  the  right  foot. 

6.  I he  short  flexor  muscle  of  the  toes. 

PLAi'E  69. 

Fig.  I.  The  abductor  muscle  of  the  little  toe  and  the  three  plantar  interossei  muscles  of  the 
right  foot. 

“ 2.  Superficial  view  of  all  the  muscles  in  the  sole  of  the  right  foot,  complete. 

**  3.  The  plantar  fascia. 

4.  I'he  dorsal  surface  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  foot,  with  outline  from  a photograph). 

“ 5.  The  four  dorsal  interossei  muscles  of  the  right  foot 

**  6.  The  extensor  brevis  digitorum  muscle  of  the  right  foot. 

PLATE  70 

Photograph  of  a woman’s  foot  in  various  positions. 

Fig.  f.  The  right  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and  the  weight  received  on  the  balls  of  the  toes 
{ from  the  inner  side). 

Fig.  2.  The  left  foot  resting  firmly  on  the  ground  { from  the  front). 

Fig.  3.  T he  left  foot  with  the  heel  slightly  raised  and  the  weight  lightly  received  on  the  toes 

{from  the  back). 

Fig.  4.  The  right  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and  the  weight  received  on  the  balls  of  the  toes 
( from  the  back). 

Fig.  5.  The  right  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and  the  weight  received  on  the  toes  as  in  walking. 
Fig.  6.  The  left  foot  pointing  as  in  stepping  forward. 

Fig.  7.  The  left  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and  the  weight  received  on  the  toes  as  in  walking. 

Fig.  8.  The  right  foot  pendant  {from  the  Umer  side). 

Fig.  9.  r he  left  foot  pendant  (/row  the  outer  side). 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  71. 

Figure  representing  the  skeleton  of  a man  in  the  sitting  posture,  suggesting  an 
ordinary  position  assumed  by  one  who  is  engaged  in  argument. 

PLATE  72. 

Fig-.  1.  Back  view  of  tlie  skeleton  of  a man  in  the  standing  position,  with  the  right  arm 
e.xtended  as  by  a gesture  of  inquiry. 

“ 2.  Represents  tlie  skeleton  of  a woman  in  the  sitting  position  with  both  arms  raised  as 
in  exclamatory  action. 

PI. ATE  73. 

Fig.  I.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  a man  running. 

“ 2.  Drawing  of  the  skeleton  in  its  relation  to  the  surface  form,  in  the  same  position  as 
in  Fig.  I. 

PLATE  74. 

Photograph  of  a woman’s  skeleton,  in  the  sitting  posture,  by  the  side  of  a spinning- 
wheel,  with  the  left  foot  resting  upon  a stool  and  the  right  foot  on  the  treadle 
of  the  wheel. 

PLATE  75. 

Photograph  of  a woman  spinning,  to  be  compared  with  the  photograph  of  the  skeleton 
in  the  same  position,  shown  in  Plate  74. 

PLATE  76. 

Fig.  1.  Photograph  of  a woman’s  skeleton  standing,  with  the  right  arm  raised  to  support  a 
jar  as  if  resting  on  the  head  ( from  the  front). 

“ 2.  Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  same  position  as  the  skeleton  in  Fig.  i. 

“ 3.  Photograph  of  the  same  woman  in  the  same  position  as  in  Fig.  2 (with  drapery), 

PLATE  77 

Fig.  1.  Photograph  of  a woman’s  skeleton  standing  with  the  right  arm  raised  to  support  a 
jar  as  if  resting  on  the  head  (from  the  back). 

“ 2.  Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  position  of  the  skeleton  in  Fig.  i. 

“ 3.  Photograph  of  the  same  woman  in  the  same  position  as  in  Fig.  2 (with  drapery). 

PLATE  78. 

Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man  (right  side)  to  be  compared  with  Fig.  2. 

“ 2,  Diagram  of  the  muscles,  superimposed  upon  the  skeleton  as  in  Fig.  i. 

PLATE  79. 

Fig.  1.  The  muscles  diagramatically  superposed  on  the  right  side  of  the  front  of  the  skeleton. 

“ 2.  The  muscles  diagramatically  superposed  on  the  right  side  of  the  back  of  the  skeleton, 

PLATE  80. 

Copy  of  an  engraving  adapted  from  a statue  of  Hercules  and  Antaeus. 


12 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PI.ATE  81. 

Photograph  of  a model  dressed  in  a tight-fitting  elastic  suit  upon  which  the  superficial  muscles 
and  their  tendons  have  been  painted  as  they  would  be  seen  if  the  skin  were  removed. 


PLATE  82. 

Photograph  of  a woman  model  standing  with  the  weight  chiefly  supported  on  the  right  foot, 
and  the  arms  raised,  showing  the  graceful  outline  of  the  waist  and  hips  {from  the  front). 


PLATE  88. 

Photograph  of  a woman  model  standing  in  an  easy  attitude  showing  the  curves  in  the  neck, 
back  and  loins. 


PLATE  84. 

Photograph  of  a woman  in  a position  suggested  by  the  posture  of  Venus  in  a group  of  “ Venus 
and  Cupid  ” by  Thorwaldsen. 


PLATE  8.5. 

Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  attitude  of  one  who  is  about  to  draw  water  from  a well. 


PLATE  8(5. 

Photograph  of  a woman  advancing  and  holding  out  her  hand  in  greeting. 

PLATE  87 

Photograph  of  a woman  with  the  arms  raised  as  if  arranging  clothes  on  a line  to  dry. 

PLATE  88. 

Photographs  of  a woman  dancing,  in  three  different  postures,  to  illustrate  varied  motions 
of  feet  and  hands  in  balancing  and  maintaining  poise  in  graceful  action. 


PLATE  89. 

Photograph  of  a cast  from  the  statue  “L’ecorche”  in  the  position  of  an  orator,  by  the 
French  sculptor  Houdon,  1771,  which  is  admirably  suited  for  demonstrating  the  superficial 
muscles  (from  the  front). 

PLATE  90 

Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  Plate  89. 

PLATE  91. 

Photograph  of  Houdon 's  statue  {from  the  right  side). 

PLATE  92. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  in  Plate  gi. 

PLATE  93 

Photograph  of  Houdon’s  statue  (from  the  left  side). 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Fig.  I. 
“ 2. 


Fig.  I. 

“ 2, 

“ 3, 


PLATE  94. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  Plate  93. 

PLATE  95. 

Photograph  from  a cast  of  a statue  of  an  athlete  called  “The  Sandal  Binder,” 
now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Fig.  1. 

PLATE  96. 

Photograph  of  a Statue  called  “Mercury  Resting.”  • 

PLATE  97. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  q6. 

PLATE  98. 

Photograph  from  a cast  of  the  statue  called  “ Diskoholos  ” in  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 

PLATE  99. 

Photograph  nf  a man  in  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  98. 

PLATE  100. 

Photograph  from  a. cast  of  a statue  called  “Diskoholos”  now  in  the  Palazzo-Messini 
at  Rome. 


PLATE  101. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  lOO. 

PLATE  102. 

Photograph  of  a man  carrying  in  his  right  hand  a weight  of  fifty  pounds,  while  he 
holds  with  his  left  hand  a slender  cord  and  pendulum  between  the  forefinger  and 
thumb. 


PLATE  103. 

Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  man 
in  Fig.  2. 

Photograph  of  a man  whose  weight  is  supported  on  the  left  limb  with  the  right  hand 
extended  as  in  a gesture  of  explanation,  and  the  left  fore-arm  and  hand  bent  back 
on  the  chest,  as  if  holding  the  folds  of  a cloak  or  toga. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  in  Fig.  2,  with  drapery. 

PLATE  104. 

Photograph  of  a man  walking  up  stairs  taken  at  the  moment  that  he  is  leaning  for- 
ward so  as  to  place  his  weight  upon  the  upper  step. 


14 


List  of  Illustrations. 


PLATE  106. 

Photograph  of  a man  walking  up  stairs  with  the  knee  more  bent  than  in  Plate  104,  and  the 
limb  which  is  extended  in  the  act  of  leaving  the  ground,  turned  toward  the  camera. 

PLATE  106. 

Photograph  of  a man  walking  up  stairs,  in  exact  profile. 


PLATE  107. 

Photograph  of  a man  stepping  downward. 

PLATE  108. 

Instantaneous  photograph  of  a woman  running  rapidly  toward  the  camera  with  the  arms 
outstretched. 

PLATE  109 

Photograph  of  the  famous  bronze  statue  of  the  “Flying  Mercury,’’  by  John  of  Bologna 
{right  side). 

PLATE  110. 

Photograph  of  a model  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  of  the  “Flying 
Mercury’’  (^right  side). 

PLATE  111. 

Photograph  of  the  bronze  statue  of  the  “Flying  Mercury’’  {left  side). 


PLATE  112. 

Photograph  of  a model  in  the  same  attitude  as  the  statue  in  Plate  in  {left  side). 

PLATE  ITS. 

Photograph  from  a cast  of  the  statue  of  the  “ Fighting  Gladiator  ’’  {from  the  front). 

PLATE  114. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  of  the  “ Fighting 
Gladiator’’  in  Plate  113. 

PLATE  11.5. 

Photograph  of  a cast  of  the  statue  of  the  “ Fighting  Gladiator  ’.’  {from  the  biuk). 

PLATE  116. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  115. 

PLATE  117. 

Photograp.h  of  a man  in  the  erect  position,  with  the  arms  equally  extended  on  either  side 
and  arranged  with  squares  and  a circle  superposed  to  demonstrate  the  proportions  of  the 
human  figure. 


15 


List  of  lUustrations. 


PLATE  118. 

Photographs  of  a man  ( from  the  front  atul  left  side)  with  transverse  parallel  lines 
superposed  to  demonstrate  the  division  of  the  stature  into  eight  head  lengths. 

PLATE  119. 

Photographs  of  a woman  {from  the  front  and  left  side)  with  transverse  parallel  lines 
superposed  to  demonstrate  the  division  of  the  stature  into  seven  and  one-half 
head  lengths. 

PLATE  120. 

Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  a man  {from  the  back)  with  transverse  parallel  lines  superposed  to 
demonstrate  the  division  of  the  stature  into  eight  head  lengths. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a woman  {from  the  back)  with  transverse  parallel  lines  superposed  to 
demonstrate  the  division  of  the  stature  into  seven  and  one-half  head  lengths. 

PLATE  121. 

Photograph  of  a girl  baby,  seven  months  old,  showing  the  furrows  on  the  front  of 
the  thighs  before  the  lower  limbs  are  able  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body. 

PLATE  122. 

Photograph  of  a portion  of  the  cartoon  for  the  “Oath  in  the  Tennis  Court,’’  by 
David,  at  the  Louvre,  Paris. 


PLATE  123. 

Photograph  of  a portion  of  the  finished  picture  of  the  “ Oath  in  the  Tennis  Court,” 
by  Moreau,  at  Versailles.  (To  be  compared  with  Plate  122.) 

PLATE  124. 

Photograph  of  a portion  of  the  cartoon  by  David. 

PLATE  125. 

Photograph  of  a portion  of  the  finished  picture  by  Moreau.  (To  be  compared  with 
Plate  124.) 


16 


ANATOMY  IN  ITS  RELATION 

TO  ART. 


The  object  of  this  book  is  to  contribute  to  that  knowledge  of  human 
anatomy  with  which  artists  are  chiefly  concerned,  and  it  should  there- 
fore be  understood,  as  preliminary  to  so  complex  a subject,  that  the 
jdeeper  structures  are  here  set  forth  solely  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  their 
influence  upon  the  surface  anatomy. 

'The  skin  is  a sensitive  protective  covering  which  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  the  several  regions  of  which  the  body  is  composed,  and  an 
account  of  it  is  given  after  the  description  of  each  of  the  parts  with  which  it  is 
identified. 

Beneath  the  skin  is  another  covering,  the  subcutaneous  fascia,  consisting 
of  a loose  layer  of  areolar,  or  connective  tissue,  in  which  the  fat  is  lodged,  and 
in  health  accumulates  in  certain  localities  more  than  in  others.  As  the  fat 
somewhat  masks  the  subjacent  parts,  it  is  also  described  with  the  skin. 

Beneath  the  subcutaneous  fascia  there  is  a layer  of  deep  fascia,  destitute  of 
fat,  which  closely  invests  the  muscles  and  organs,  firmly  holding  them  in 
position,  and  from  which  leaflets  are  separated  to  surround  the  various  struc- 
tures, thereby  forming  for  them  enveloping  sheaths.  In  the  case  of  the  muscles 
this  arrangement  greatly  increases  their  power. 

The  muscle  tissue  is  composed  of  fibres  aggregated  in  bundles,  each  fibre 
and  each  bundle  having  a sheath  derived  from  the  deep  fascia.  At  either  end  of 
the  muscle  the  sheath  becomes  condensed  into  tendons  which  are  attached  to 
the  contiguous  bones.  The  fixed  end  of  a muscle  is  called  its  origin,  while  the 


Anatomy  in  its  T^elation  to  Art. 

end  which  produces  movement  is  called  its  insertion.  The  muscles  are  vari- 
able in  the  disposition  of  their  fibres  according  to  their  functions  and  the  role 
which  they  are  designed  to  perform.  Both  the  bones  and  muscles  are  normally 
disposed  so  that  they  are  symmetrical  on  the  two  sides  of  the  body.  The 
muscles  constitute  the  flesh  of  the  body.  They  are  the  active  organs  of  move- 
ment. The  bones  which  form  the  skeleton  or  framework  are  the  passive 
organs  which  are  acted  upon  by  the  muscles.  The  movements  are  either 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  and  are  dependent  upon  the  influences  acting  through 
the  nervous  system.  Muscles  may  act  from  either  end  and  in  opposite  directions 
according  to  the  stimulus  which  they  receive. 

During  life  when  the  brain  and  nerve  centres  are  awake  to  the  impressions 
of  exciting  influences  the  circulation  of  the  blood  increases  throughout  all  the 
tissues  of  the  body  and  then  the  muscles  are  capable  of  energy.  It  is  only  dur- 
ing profound  sleep  that  they  are  relaxed  and  quiescent.  After  death  they  become 
shrunken  and  often  rigid  {rigor  mortis),  due  to  a peculiar  chemical  change  in  their 
composition. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  mistake  of  studying  the  parts  ’separately  considered  as 
distinct  organisms  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  as  parts  they  are  only 
adjuncts  to  the  wonderful  machinery  of  the  body,  which  owes  its  life,  its 
growth,  its  power  and  beauty  to  the  exercise  of  the  functions  of  the  nerves, 
blood-vessels,  digestive  apparatus  and  special  organs  which  control  them.  An 
account  of  these  important  organs  belongs  to  another  sphere  of  the  study  of 
anatomy,  and  is  outside  of  the  present  task,  but  from  the  nature  of  things  they 
must  from  time  to  time  be  referred  to,  and  experience  has  shown  that  there 
is  no  better  way  of  encouraging  observation,  an  essential  faculty  for  artists,  than 
by  emphasizing  the  relations  which  they  bear  to  the  actions  of  ihe  body. 

The  art-student  of  anatomy  should  always  keep  in  mind  that  the  human 
body  is  designed  to  be  supported  erect.  It  consists  of  the  head,  neck  and  trunk, 
and  two  pairs  of  extremities,  the  upper  and  lower  limbs. 


i8 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  SKELETON. 

Every  bone  of  the  skeleton  after  death  bears  individual  features  which 
indicate,  in  a measure,  the  wear-and-tear  it  has  been  subjected  to  during 
life,  and  from  them  whole  histories  might  be  deduced.  It  would  be 
beside  the  object  of  this  book  to  enter  into  a minute  description  (;f  the  several 
bones,  for  artists  are  not,  and  never  need  be,  scientific  anatomists ; they  have 
enough  weary  details  to  digest  without  taxing  their  power  of  assimilation  by 
particularizing  points,  which,  however  interesting,  are  beside  the  mark.  The 
entire  skeleton  should  be  studied  with  its  component  bones  in  proper  relation : 
but,  in  order  to  comprehend  the  purpose  of  its  construction,  it  is  well  to 
observe  separately  those  bones  which  especially  influence  the  external  form, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  in  the  different  regions  of  the  body. 

The  bones  cannot  be  well  learned  from  diagrams,  and  whenever  possible  the 
real  specimens  should  be  examined.  As  these  are  seldom  within  reach  of  the 
student,  both  drawings  and  photographs,  from  selected  specimens,  are  here  used 
as  illustrations;  the  latter,  being  accurate,  are  of  special  service  in  producing  a 
realistic  impression.  The  sculptor,  especially,  should  be  acquainted  with  the 
articulated  skeleton  placed  in  various  positions  so  that  he  may  comprehend  the 
elevations  and  depressions  it  presents  in  contrast  to  those  which  are  found 
when  it  is  covered  with  flesh  and  clothed  with  garments.  Comparison  of  the 
skeleton  with  the  living  model  will  show  that  much  of  the  outward  form  is 
dependent  upon  the  framework.  (Plates  1,  2,  3,  4,  5 and  6.) 

Some  parts  of  the  skeleton  are  always  conspicuous,  being  covered  merely 
by  the  skin,  and  may  be  referred  to,  as  landmarks.  They  are  useful  as 
points  of  reference ; of  these  the  most  valuable'  are  the  prominences  of 
the  skull,  the  spine  of  the  seventh  vertebra  in  the  neck,  the  spines  of  the 
shoulder-blades,  the  collar-bones,  the  ridge  between  the  first  and  second 
pieces  of  the  breast-bone,  the  prominences  of  the  shoulder,  the  elbow,  the 
wrist  and  the  hand,  the  prominences  of  the  pelvis,  the  hip,  the  ankle  and 
the  foot. 

In  those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  covered  with  much  flesh  it  is 


19 


Jiiatoiiir  in  its  Rdation  to  Art. 

noticeable  that  there  are  depressions  and  hollows  in  the  skeleton  upon  both 
sides,  as  between  the  ribs  and  the  spinal  column. 

There  are  about  two  hundred  bones  in  the  human  skeleton.  They  are  class- 
ified as  flat,  long,  thick  and  irregular  bones.  Flat  bones  are  always  found  whei'e 
protection  is  necessary  to  contained  organs,  as  in  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the 
pelvis.  Long  bones  are  in  the  extremities,  where  they  serve  as  levers,  and  are 
adapted  to  the  actions  of  muscles  in  the  various  movements,  and  in  support. 
Thick  bones  are  in  the  wrist  and  ankle,  where  strength  and  freedom  of  motion 
are  necessary.  Irregular  bones  are  in  the  spinal  column,  where  the  several  ver- 
tebrae present  thick  portions  in  front,  being  super-imposed  so  as  to  support  the 
weight  of  the  head  and  trunk,  while  behind,  the  segments  are  composed  of  flat 
parts  for  protection  to  the  spinal  cord.  During  life  the  bones  are  not  as  they 
appear  in  the  dried  skeleton ; they  are  then  living  structures,  and  have  a certain 
amount  of  elasticity  depending  partly  upon  their  organization  and  partly  upon 
their  conformation.  The  construction  of  each  individual  bone  defies  improve- 
ment for  its  purpose.  They  are  smooth  where  the  parts  surrounding  them  are 
not  attached,  and  always  roughened  where  the  tendons  are  inserted;  they  are 
not  unnecessarily  solid  or  heavy ; the  outer  surface  is  denser  and  harder  than 
the  interior,  which  is  channeled  for  blood-vessels,  and  in  the  long  bones  there  is 
a hollow  space  which  extends  within  the  shaft,  or  body,  toward  either  extremity. 
This  space  is  filled  with  marrow  while  the  bone  is  living ; otherwise,  were  the 
bone  solid,  it  would  be  very  heavy  and  unwieldy.  A skeleton  is  called  natural 
when  its  component  bones  are  held  together  by  ligaments,  and  artificial  when 
the  bones  are  connected  by  wires. 


20 


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PLATE  1. 


Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  a man  aged  24  yeafrs;  Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  same  man  as  in 
height,  5 feet  8 inches;  weight,  H5  | Fig.  i {left  side). 

pounds  {front  the  front).  | 

This  man  possesses  a form  rarely  suitable  for  artistic  study,  both  as  to  symmetry 

of  development  and  proportion.  Compare  Plates  94>  99>  ^*^3  ^rid  i lo. 

Plate  ii8  shows  his  stature  to  be  equal  to  eight  times  the  length  of  his  head,  and  as  his 
head  measures  eight  and  one-half  inches,  his  height  is  exactly  sixty-eight  inches  or  five  feet 
eight  inches. 

The  measurement  from  the  top  of  his  head  to  the  soles  of  his  feet,  when  he  is  standing,  is 
the  same  as  the  measurement  from  the  finger-tips  of  one  hand  to  those  of  the  other  when 
his  arms  are  equally  extended  on  either  side.  (See  Plate  117  and  page  130). 


i * 


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PLATE  2. 


Fig.  J.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton,  with  out-  j Fig.  2.  Photograph, of  the  skeleton,  with  out- 
line, of  a man  aged  37  years;  height,  j line,  of  a man  (same  as  Fig.  i)  {left 

6 feet  t inch  (fmn  the  front).  side). 

N.  B. — This  skeleton  is  remarkable  for  the  perfect  development  of  every  bone  composing 
it.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  height  is  due  to  the  unusual  length  of  the  lower  extremities, 
in  which,  as  well  as  in  the  upper  extremities,  the  bones  are  relatively  longer  than  they  are 
ordinarily. 


PLATE  2 


Fig.  2 


PLATE  4. 


Fig.  t. 


N. 

parison 


Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a 
woman,  with  outline ; height,  5 feet 
AY2  inches  {from  ihe  front). 

B. — As  this  skeleton  is  equal  in  height 
of  the  two  plates  will  be  instructive. 


Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton 
woman,  with  outline  (same 
Fig.  0 {left  side). 

that  of  the  woman  shown  in  Plate  3 


of  a 
as  in 

L com- 


PLATE  4 


t 


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Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


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- 


I 


■ ;>'  I* 


PLATE  6. 


Fig.  i.  Photograph  of  the  back  of  a man  (same  j Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  back  of  a woman 
as  in  Plate  0*  I (same  as  in  Plate  3). 

N.  B. — This  plate  should  be  studied  in  comparison  with  the  following  Plate  6;  also  with 
Plates  ii8,  ligand  120. 


PLATE  6. 


Fig.  t.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man,  i Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a woman, 
with  outline,  (same  as  in  Plate  2)  with  outline,  (same  as  in  Plate  4) 

{from  the  bach).  {from  the  bach) . 


PLATE  6 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  ARTICULATIONS. 

The  joints  or  articulations  are  wliere  tlie  separate  bones  of  the  skeleton  are 
fastened  together,  and  the  parts  of  the  bones  which  enter  into  them  are 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  various  movements  of  the  body. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  joints:  immovable  ox  fixed  joints,  as  at  the  borders 
of  the  bones  of  the  head ; mixed  joints,  where  the  motion  is  slight,  as  between 
any  of  the  segments  of  the  spinal  column,  the  wrist,  and  the  ankle ; and  movable 
joints,  which  are  found  especially  where  the  long  bones  act  upon  one  another,  as 
in  the  extremities. 

To  the  artist  the  movable  joints  are  of  the  greatest  interest,  and  particular 
attention  should  be  given  to  all  the  parts  which  are  in  relation  to  them,  because 
they  distinctly  affect  the  outward  form.  The  surfaces  of  the  ends  of  the  bones 
entering  into  the  movable  joints  are  very  hard  and  smooth,  and  in  the  natural 
state  are  covered  with  cartilage,  or  gristle,  which  is  usually  thickest  at  the  point 
where  the  greatest  pressure  is  exerted.  The  ends  are  enclosed  within  a mem- 
branous capsule,  the  internal  surface  of  which  has  the  property  of  secreting  a 
peculiar  fluid,  \he  synovial  (resembling  the  white  of  an  egg)  or  joint  juice,  which 
lubricates  the  parts  and  enables  them  to  be  freely  moved  without  being  sub- 
jected to  friction.  The  joints  are  strengthened  by  ligaments,  which  are  dense 
bands  of  fibrous  tissue.  The  articular  surfaces  are  more  or  less  kept  in  ap- 
position by  the  action  of  the  muscles,  through  the  disposition  of  the  tendons 
which  pass  over  them,  and  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  joints  of  the  extremities  deserve  special  attention. 

The  shoulder-joint  (Plate  7,  Figs,  i,  2,  and  3)  is  like  a ball  and  socket,  capable 
of  universal  motion,  enabling  the  upper  extremity  to  be' moved  about  the  trunk  in 
all  directions.  In  order  to  effect  this  the  upper  end  of  the  arm-bone  (humerus) 
is  nearly  spherical  in  shape,  and  the  cupped  depression  upon  the  shoulder-blade 
against  which  it  rests  is  very  shallow.  The  capsule  of  this  joint  is  very  loose,  and 
there  are  no  marked  constraining  ligaments,  so  that  when  the  upper  extremity 
hangs  freely  beside  the  trunk,  there  is  more  or  less  separation  of  the  head  of 
the  arm-bone  from  the  shoulder-blade.  In  thin  persons  there  is  a noticeable 


21 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

depression  at  this  locality,  and  it  may  be  felt  in  all  persons  through  the  over- 
lying  (deltoid)  muscle.  When  the  shoulder-joint  is  in  action  it  is  mainly 
strengthened  by  the  tendons  of  the  biceps  muscle,  which  are  disposed  so 
that  they  preserve  the  relation  of  the  head  of  the  arm-bone  to  the  shallow 
depression  on  the  shoulder-blade,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  a too  great 
separation  or  dislocation  (Plate  43.  Fig.  i).  (See  page  74.) 

At  the  elbow  the  joint  (Plate  8,  Figs,  i,  2, 3,  4,  ^ and  6)  is  essentially  a hinge, 
the  bones  entering  into  its  formation  being  so  adapted  that  they  can  only  be 
moved  in  flexion  and  extension.  The  elbow-joint  consists  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  arm-bone  and  the  upper  end  of  one  of  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  (the  ulna), 
held  together  by  lateral  ligaments.  The  upper  end  of  the  other  fore-arm  bone 
(the  radius),  although  it  is  present  at  the  elbow,  does  not  play  any  part  in  its 
function.  (See  page  71.) 

The  hand  is  attached  at  the  wrist-joint  (Plate  9,  Figs.  7 and  6)  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  radius,  and  as  the  upper  end  of  that  bone  (radius)  is  held  by  a special 
circular  ligament  to  the  upper  end  of  the  ulna,  below  the  elbow,  it  is  enabled  to 
follow  the  motions  of  extension  and  flexion  at  that  joint,  and  at  the  same  time 
be  turned  over  backward  (supinated)  or  forward  (pronated)  through  the  actions 
of  the  muscles  upon  the  radius,  which  can  be  twisted  around  the  ulna  (Plates  47 
and  48.)  This  is  one  of  the  wonderful  mechanical  arrangements  which  provides 
an  instance  of  the  best  possible  means  toward  an  useful  end  to  which  the  con- 
struction of  the  body  bears  witness  from  whatever  point  of  view  it  is  studied. 
The  lower  end  of  the  ulna  is  hardly  any  more  a feature  of  the  wrist-joint  than 
is  the  upper  end  of  the  radius  of  the  elbow.  It  is  attached  to  the  hand  by  a 
loose  ligament.  Between  the  companion  bones  of  the  fore-arm  there  is  a strong 
interosseus  membrane  which,  being  attached  to  their  inner  borders,  serves  to 
check  rotation  of  the  radius  carrying  the  hand  with  it,  in  supination  or  pro- 
nation. In  consequence  of  this  arrangement,  the  wrist-joint  is  capable  of  flexion 
and  extension  and  of  circumduction  to  a limited  degree.  (The  movements  of 
the  thumb  and  fingers  are  described  with  the  hand,  pages  80  to  86.) 

The  joints  of  the  upper  extremity  considered  together  show  an  inter-depend- 
ence which  serves  the  purpose  of  prehension,  and  on  occasion  renders  an 
important  means  of  defense.  The  harmony  of  action  of  the  several  joints  at  the 
fingers,  the  wrist,  the  elbow,  and  the  shoulder,  is  best  appreciated  by  noticing  the 


22 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


ordinary  uses  to  which  the  limb  is  applied,  as  in  dressing,  in  feeding,  in  playing 
the  violin,  throwing  a stone,  etc.  Any  impairment  of  one  or  other  of  the  joints 
interferes  with  the  functional  use  of  the  others,  and  this  is  greatest  when  the 
trouble  occurs  at  the  shoulder. 

The  joints  of  the  lower  extremities  correspond  to  the  joints  of  the  upper 
extremities,  but  are  modified  for  support  whether  the  body  be  at  rest  or  in 
action. 

The  hip-joint  (Plate  7,  Figs.  4,  ^ and  6)  approaches  in  character  that  of  the 
shoulder:  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  (femur)  is  even  more  spherical  than  the 
head  of  the  arm-bone,  but  the  depression  in  the  haunch-bone  (ilium)  is  not 
shallow,  being  so  deep  that  it  almost  completely  contains  the  head  of  the  thigh 
in  all  positions.  At  the  hip  the  capsule  is  not  loose,  and  there  are  strong  liga- 
ments as  well  as  powerful  tendons  which,  both  at  rest  and  in  motion,  serve 
to  keep  the  bones  properly  adjusted  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  trunk.  The 
movements  at  the  hip  joint  are  in  all  directions,  but  without  the  freedom  as  are 
those  at  the  shoulder. 

The  knee-joint  (Plate  8,  Figs.  7,  8,  9 and  10,  and  Plate  9,  Figs,  i,  2,  3 and  4) 
is  composed  of  the  lower  end  of  the  thigh-bone  and  the  upper  end  of  the  shin- 
bone (tibia),  and  when  the  skeleton  is  examined  appears  to  be  very  weakly  con- 
structed, for  the  bones  are  merely  in  contact  with  one  another,  not  mortised,  or 
presenting  a depression  in  the  one  for  reception  of  a projection  from  the  other,  as 
in  the  analogous  joint  of  the  upper  extremity.  Like  the  elbow,  however,  the  knee 
has  mainly  a hinge  motion,  for  extension  and  flexion.  There  are  strong  ligaments 
at  the  sides  of  the  knee,  and  a synovial  membrane  which  is  peculiarly  folded  so  as 
to  furnish  a large  secreting  surface  for  the  synovia  upon  the  ends  of  the  bones. 
In  front  there  is  a separate  bone,  the  knee-pan  (patella),  which  serves  to  protect  the 
joint  in  kneeling,  and  as  a pulley  for  the  tendons  of  the  great  muscles  which 
extend  the  leg  upon  the  thigh.  The  tendons  of  the  various  muscles  which  pass 
over  this  joint  hold  the  bones  together  with  remarkable  security,  so  that  in  spite 
of  the  apparent  weakness  in  the  skeleton  it  is  really  one  of  the  strongest  joints  in 
the  body.  Between  the  two  bones  of  the  leg,  as  in  the  arm,  there  is  an  inter- 
osseous membrane  which,  however,  merely  affords  a greater  surface  for  the 
attachment  of  the  leg  muscles,  as  there  is  very  little  motion  between  the  tibia 
and  the  fibula,  which  are  held  together  above  and  below  by  strong  ligaments. 


23 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 

The  ankle-joint  (Plate  9,  Figs.  7 and  8)  is  a mortise-joint,  and  is  formed 
by  the  lower  ends  of  the  two  leg-bones  (the  tibia  on  the  inner  side  and  the 
fibula  on  the  outer)  which  receive  between  them  the  upper  bone  of  the  foot 
(astragalus).  The  outer  ankle-bone  is  always  lower  than  the  inner,  thus  pre- 
venting the  movement  of  the  foot  outward,  which  is  its  natural  disposition,  to 
the  same  extent  as  it  can  be  moved  inward.  The  motions  at  the  ankle  are  exten- 
sion, flexion  and  lateral,  adapting  it  to  the  uses  of  the  foot  in  standing,  walking 
running,  leaping,  dancing,  etc.  (The  movements  of  the  joints  of  the  toes  are 
described  with  the  foot,  pages  109  and  110.) 

The  artist  should  observe  the  joints  in  the  living  model  and  compare  them 
with  the  skeleton;  they  should  also  be  examined  carefully  in  arrested  motion, 
for  much  can  be  learned  in  this  way  which  it  is  impossible  to  describe. 


24 


PLATE  7. 


Fig.  i.  The  bones  of  the  right  shoulder  joint 

{from  the  front). 

1.  The  clavicle. 

2.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

3.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

4.  The  glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula. 

5.  The  head  of  the  humerus. 

6.  The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus. 

8.  The  anterior  tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 

9.  The  rhomboid  ligament,  connecting  the 

clavicle  with  the  top  of  the  sternum. 

Fig.  2.  The  ligaments  of  the  right  shoulder 
joint  {from  the  front). 

1.  The  acromio-clavicular  ligament. 

2.  The  coraco-clavicular  ligament. 

3.  The  capsular  ligament. 

4.  The  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle. 


Fig.  3.  The  ligaments  of  the  right  shoulder 
joint  {from  the  back). 

1.  The  acromio-clavicular  ligament. 

2.  The  capsular  ligament. 

Fig.  4.  The  right  hip  joint  {from  the  back). 

I.  The  capsular  ligament. 

Fig.  5.  The  bones  of  the  right  hip  joint  ( from 
the  front). 

1.  The  innominate  bone. 

2.  The  acetabulum. 

3.  The  ligamentum  teres. 

4.  The  great  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

5.  The  head  of  the  femur. 

6.  The  lesser  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

Fig.  6.  The  right  hip  joint  {from  the  front). 

1.  The  capsular  ligament. 

2.  The  ilio-femoral  or  Y-shaped  ligament. 


PLATE  7 


PLATE  8. 


Fig.  I.  The  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  in 
extension  {from  the  front). 

1.  The  inner  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  trochlear  surface  of  the  humerus. 

3.  The  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

4.  The  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

5.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

6.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

Fig.  2.  The  ligaments  of  the  left  elbow  joint 

{from  the  front). 

1.  The  capsular  ligament. 

2.  The  orbicular  ligament. 

3.  The  superior  radio-ulnar  ligament. 

Fig.  3.  The  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  in 
extension  {from  the  back). 

1.  The  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  upper  end  of  the  ulna. 

3.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

5.  The  inner  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

6.  The  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna. 

Fig.  4.  The  ligaments  of  the  left  elbow  joint 

{from  the  back). 

1.  The  capsular  ligament. 

2.  The  orbicular  ligament 

Fig.  5.  The  bones  of  the  left  elbow  joint  flexed 
at  a right  angle  {from  the  outer  side). 

1.  The  lower  end  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

3.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

5.  The  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  upper  end  of 

the  ulna. 

6.  The  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna. 


Fig.  6.  The  ligaments  connecting  the  bones  of 
the  left  elbow  joint  in  same  position 
as  Fig.  5. 

1.  The  orbicular  ligament. 

2.  The  capsular  ligament. 

Fig.  7.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  in 
extension  {from  the  front). 

1.  The  outer  condyle  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  patella. 

3.  The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia. 

4.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

5.  The  inner  condyle  of  the  femur. 

6.  The  inner  tuberosity  of  the  tibia. 

7.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

Fig.  8.  The  ligaments  of  the  right  knee  joint 

{from  the  front). 

1.  The  cut  end  of  the  ligamentum  patellae. 

2.  The  patella. 

3.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

4.  The  capsular  ligament. 

5.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

6.  The  insertion  of  the  ligamentum  patellae. 

Fig.  9.  The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint  in 
extension  {from  the  back). 

1.  The  inner  condyle  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  inner  tuberosity  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  outer  condyle  of  the  femur. 

4.  The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia. 

5.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

Fig.  JO.  The  ligaments  of  the  right  knee  joint 

{from  the  bach). 

1.  The  capsular  ligament. 

2.  The  superior  tibio-fibular  ligament. 

3.  The  first  external  lateral  ligament. 

4.  The  second  external  ligament. 


PLATE  8 


PLATE  9. 


Fig.  t 
Fig.  2 
Fig.  3 

Fig.  4 


. The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint,  in 
extension  (from  the  outer  side). 

. The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint,  in 
extension  (from  the  inner  side). 

. The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint 
flexed  at  a right  angle  (from  the  outer 
side). 

. The  bones  of  the  right  knee  joint 
flexed  at  a right  angle  (from  the  inner 
side). 


Fig.  5.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  wrist  and 
hand,  showing  the  ligaments  upon  the 
palmar  surface. 

Fig.  6.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  wrist  and 
hand,  showing  the  ligaments  upon  the 
dorsal  surface. 

Fig.  7.  The  bones,  with  the  ligaments,  of  the 
right  ankle  joint  (from  the  outer  side). 

Fig.  8.  The  bones,  with  the  ligaments,  of  the 
right  ankle  joint  (from  the  inner  side). 


PLATE  9 


i 


9 *J9^ 


if  wt 


r.WM, 


r 


I 


% 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD  AND  FACE. 

The  skull,  or  framework  of  the  head,  consists  of  the  cranium  and  the 
bones  of  the  face.  In  infancy  the  cranium  is  composed  of  eight  separate 
bones:  the  frontal,  the  right  and  left  parietal,  the  right  and  left  temporal, 
the  occipital,  the  sphenoid  and  the  ethmoid.  In  childhood  they  become  joined 
at  their  borders  by  peculiar  dovetailed  indentations,  the  sutures,  and  throughout 
life  form  the  solid,  bony,  egg-shaped  box  or  brain-case,  which,  in  all  the  varia- 
tions of  size  and  shape,  contributes  to  the  surface  form  of  the  head.  After 
puberty  certain  prominences  become  more  or  less  developed  and  thus  influence 
the  character  of  the  individual  head. 

The  frontal  bone  (Plate  10,  Figs,  i and  2)  forms  the  forehead.  It  is  smooth 
and  subcutaneous,  the  frontal  portion  of  the  scalp  muscle  (page  31)  being 
extremely  thin,  so  that  the  shape  of  the  bone  is  always  distinctive. 

The  noteworthy  features  are  the  prominences  on  either  side  of  the  forehead, 
the  frontal  eminences  which  indicate  the  development  of  the  forepart  of  the 
brain  ; the  ridges  over  the  eye-sockets  which  support  the  eye-brows,  the  outer 
angles  of  the  eye-sockets,  which  give  breadth  to  the  upper  part  of  the  face,  and 
the  spine,  upon  which  rest  the  bones  of  the  nose.  The  ridges  (Plate  10,  Figs. 
I and  2)  are  caused  by  the  formation  of  a cavity,  the  frontal  sinus,  owing  to  the 
separation  of  the  tables  of  the  frontal  bone  at  this  part  at  maturity  ( Plate  13, 
Fig.  6).  The  cavity  is  connected  with  others  in  the  ethmoid  and  sphenoid  bones, 
and  contributes  to  the  resonance  of  the  voice.  The  frontal  sinus  is  always  larger 
in  the  male,  and  the  degree  of  prominence  of  the  frontal  ridges  gives  proportion- 
ate force  to  a manly  face.  In  babyhood  the  frontal  bone  (Plate  14,  Fig.  4)  con- 
sists of  two  halves  which  unite  at  about  the  second  year. 

The  parietal  bones  (Plate  10,  Figs.  4 and  t^)  together  form  the  sides  and  vault 
of  the  cranium.  Their  development  is  commensurate  with  the  lateral  expansion 
of  the  brain  (cerebrum).  The  ridges  on  the  sides  afford  attachment  to  the  cor- 
responding temporal  muscles  and  their  sheaths  (page  42). 


25 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art 

The  temporal  bones  (Plate  10,  Fig.  7)  are  placed  at  the  lower  parts  of  the 
sides  of  the  skull,  and  extend  toward  one  another  at  its  base  (Plate  13,  Fig.  ^). 
They  are  peculiarly  shaped  and  constructed  in  their  several  portions.  At  the 
sides,  where  they  articulate  with  the  parietal  bones,  they  have  no  sutures,  but 
overlap  with  the  corresponding  lower  borders  of  these  bones.  The  portions 
which  project  inwardly  are  very  strong  and  hard  and  are  excavated  for  the 
delicate  organs  of  hearing  which  they  contain.  The  large  opening  on  the  outer 
side  is  the  passage-way  (Plate  10)  by  which  the  vibrations  of  the  air  which 
produce  sound  are  conveyed  to  the  ear-drum,  after  they  are  collected  by  the 
external  cartilaginous  projection  called  the  auricle  (Plate  16).  The  long,  slender 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone  which  extends  forward  to  receive  the  bone  of 
the  cheek,  forms  the  zygoma  (or  yoke)  beneath  which  the  temporal  muscle 
passes  to  be  inserted  into  the  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  (Plate  16).  The  prom- 
inence of  bone  readily  felt  behind  the  ear  is  called  the  mastoid  proeess  because 
it  resembles  in  shape  a teat  or  nipple.  The  sterno-mastoid  muscle  of  the 
neck  is  attached  to  it.  (Page  47.) 

The  ooeipital  hone  (Plate  10,  Figs.  3 and  6)  is  at  the  back  and  under  part 
of  the  cranium,  joined  to  the  parietal  bones  above  and  to  the  temporal  bones 
below.  Its  chief  feature  is  the  external  prominenee  at  its  middle,  where  the 
bone  is  thickest  and  can  be  easily  felt  through  the  scalp.  The  curved  lines 
on  either  side  afford  attachment  to  the  muscles  which  hold  the  head  erect. 
The  condyles  are  the  portions  of  the  bone  which  rest  upon  the  topmost  vertebra 
of  the  spinal  column  (Plate  10,  and  page  43). 

The  sphenoid  and  ethmoid  hones  are  in  the  base  of  the  skull.  The  sphenoid 
(wedge-shaped)  bone  is  really  the  irregular  forward  prolongation  of  the  occipital 
bone  (Plate  10,  Figs.  1 1 and  12).  These  bones  serve  to  connect  the  bones  of  the 
face  with  those  of  the  cranium. 

The  skeleton  of  the  face  consists  of  twelve  bones.  Most  of  them  are 
so  covered  by  the  soft  structures,  or  so  remotely  situated,  that  only  those 
which  directly  influence  the  surface  are  particularly  referred  to  in  this  con- 
nection. 


26 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  nasal  bones  (Plate  11,  Figs,  i,  2,  3 and  4)  are  two  elongated  quadrilat- 
eral-shaped little  bones  which  project  from  the  upper  part  of  the  face  between 
the  orbits,  resting  upon  one  another  in  the  middle  line  forming  the  ''bridge"  of 
the  nose,  and  connected  to  the  spine  of  the  frontal  bone  above.  The  bridge  is 
always  remarkably  strong.  Upon  the  lower  borders  is  supported  the  cartilagin- 
ous framework,  which  is  composed  of  five  peculiarly  shaped  movable  cartilages 
(Plate  12,  Figs.  1,  2 and  3).  The  nasal  bones  vary  in  width  and  length  in  differ- 
ent skulls,  and,  as  they  are  merely  covered  by  the  skin,  they  give  shape  to  the 
organ.  These  small  bones  offer  great  interest  to  the  student  of  physiognomy 
because  they  are  rarely  exactly  arranged  the  same  in  any  two  heads.  The 
slightest  depression  or  elevation  at  their  junction  with  the  frontal  bone  will 
occasion  a change  in  the  outward  character  of  the  nose  as  seen  in  profile  (Plate 
11,  Figs.  I,  2 and  3)  Upon  the  sides,  the  nasal  bones  rest  against  the  upward 
prolongations  of  the  corresponding  upper  jaw-bones,  so  that  the  breadth  of 
the  nose  is  due  to  this  relation.  The  flattened  form  in  the  African  is  a marked 
illustration. 

The  nasal  cartilages  (Plate  12,  Figs,  i,  2 and  3)  consist  of  an  upper  triangular 
and  a lower  oval  piece  on  each  side,  which  together  give  shape  to  the  wings 
and  tip  of  the  nose.  In  the  middle  there  is  a cartilaginous  plate  (the  septum), 
which  separates  the  nostrils.  When  the  lower  lateral  cartilages  are  not  in 
contact  there  is  a more  or  less  marked  depression  at  the  tip  of  the  nose. 
The  elasticity  of  these  cartilages  enables  the  muscles  (Plate  15)  moving  them 
to  expand  or  contract  the  orifices  so  important  in  respiration  (page  39). 

The  vomer  {ploughshare)  (Plate  13,  Fig.  i)  is  the  bony  partition  between 
the  nostrils.  It  is  inclined  to  one  side  or  other,  usually  the  left,  and  as  it 
supports  the  septal  cartilage,  the  nose  is  not  often  straight  in  the  middle  of 
the  face. 

% 

The  upper  jaw-bones  (Plate  11,  Figs.  5 and  6)  form  the  right  and  left  walls 
of  the  face,  and  are  hollowed  into  the  nasal  chambers.  Laterally  the  upper  jaws 
support  the  cheek  bones  (Plate  11,  Figs.  7 and  8),  which  should  be  attentively 
studied  by  the  artist,  because  they  are  the  most  distinctive  of  the  face  when 


27 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

viewed  from  the  front.  Whether  the  cheeks  be  high  or  low  depends  upon 
the  development  of  the  cheek  bones,  and  their  manner  of  articulation  with 
the  contiguous  temporal,  frontal  and  upper  jaw-bones  (Plate  11,  Figs,  i,  2 
and  3). 

The  lower  jaw-bone  ( Plate  11,  Figs,  i,  2,  3 and  6)  gives  force  and  strength  to 
the  face  in  proportion  to  the  pronounced  development  of  its  several  parts.  It 
presents  a horse-shoe  shaped  portion,  the  body,  from  the  sides  of  which  a branch 
(ramus)  extends  upward  on  either  side.  The  angles  formed  by  the  branches 
with  the  body  vary  according  to  the  age  of  the  person,  being  obtuse  in  infancy, 
approaching  a right  angle  in  the  adult,  and  returning  to  the  infantile  form  in 
extreme  old  age  (Plate  10,  Figs.  8,  9 and  10).  This  is  mainly  due  to  the  absence, 
development  and  loss  of  the  teeth  at  these  periods  of  life  (Plate  14).  The 
angles  of  the  adult  lower  jaw  are  more  or  less  prominent  and  not  as  sym- 
metrical as  the  other  bony  features  of  the  human  face.  In  early  life  this  bone 
consists  of  two  separate  halves,  which  join  in  the  middle,  forming  the  chin 
(Plate  14,  Fig.  4). 

It  should  be  noted  that  when  the  lower  jaw  is  square  it  gives  a coarse- 
ness and  heaviness  to  the  face,  and  that  the  angle  is  never  at  a right  angle 

in  a well-shaped  head  in  either  sex  or  at  any  age. 

The  entire  skull  (Plates  13,  14)  should  be  carefully  studied  after  under- 
standing the  component  bones.  When  looked  at  from  in  front  or  from 
behind  or  from  above,  the  shape  of  the  head  will  be  found  to  depend  upon 
the  degree  of  development  of  the  various  prominences.  The  breadth  of 
the  head  is  due  to  the  lateral  outward  projection  of  the  parietal  eminences; 
the  breadth  of  the  face  to  the  lateral  outward  projection  of  the  external 
angular  processes  of  the  orbits,  the  cheek  bones  and  the  angles  of  the  lower 
jaw.  When  the  skull  is  viewed  in  profile,  much  of  the  character  of  the  head 
and  face  is  commensurate  with  the  height  of  the  frontal  bone,  the  depth  of 
the  jaw,  and  the  forward  projection  of  the  ridges  for  the  eyebrows,  the  attach- 
ment of  the  nasal  bones  and  the  prominence  of  the  chin. 

Comparison  of  the  skulls  of  an  adult  and  of  an  infant  shows  that  the 

difference  exists  in  the  relative  proportions  of  the  head  and  face  (Plate  14). 


28 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


Throughout  childhood  this  gradually  diminishes.  The  changes  which  occur 
are  chielly  in  the  development  of  the  teeth  and  the  jaws  which  contain  them. 
In  the  various  stages  of  youth  to  manhood  there  are  peculiarities  of  form  of 
the  head  and  face  which  are  contemporaneous  with  the  development  of  the 
power  of  speech. 

The  so-called  facial  angle  (Plate  14,  Figs,  i,  2 and  3)  is  formed  by  the  degree 
of  divergence  {E.  F.)  of  a line  (C.  D.)  drawn  from  the  forehead  to  the  sockets 
of  the  incisor  teeth,  intersecting  a horizontal  line  {A.  7T)  drawn  from  the  latter 
point  to  the  occiput  through  the  auditory  opening.  Comparison  of  the  angle  as 
measured  on  the  skulls  of  the  European,  and  the  African,  and  the  ourang-outang, 
demonstrates  that  it  is  greatest  in  the  white  man,  and  that  it  diminishes  in  the 
negro,  and  in  the  ape  becomes  acute. 

The  skulls  of  different  races  of  mankind  show  this  different  degree  of  the 
facial  angle  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  their  intelligence,  but  it  is  by 
no  means  to  be  relied  upon.  For  art  uses,  the  more  nearly  the  facial  angle 
approaches  a right  angle  the  more  it  has  been  held  to  be  related  to  beauty  of 
proportion.  The  old  Greek  and  Roman  sculptors  made  much  of  this  in  ideal- 
izing their  work,  but  the  subtle  elements  which  constitute  what  is  usually  called 
beauty  cannot  be  measured  by  the  degree  of  the  facial  angle  any  more  than  can 
the  intellectual  capacity  be  gauged  by  it.  They  equally  depend  upon  the  quality 
and  not  the  quantity  of  the  relative  areas  of  the  face  and  brain-case. 


29 


PLATE  10. 


Fig.  I.  The  frontal  bone. 

1.  The  right  frontal  eminence. 

2.  The  right  superciliary  ridge. 

3.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  right 

orbit. 

4.  The  spine  for  the  nasal  bones. 

5.  The  left  frontal  eminence. 

6.  The  left  superciliary  ridge. 

7.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  left 

orbit. 

Fig.  2.  The  frontal  bone  side). 

1.  The  frontal  eminence. 

2.  The  superciliary  ridge. 

3.  The  nasal  spine. 

4.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  orbit. 

Fig.  3.  The  occipital  bone. 

1.  The  external  protuberance. 

2.  The  superior  curved  line. 

3.  The  inferior  curved  line. 

4.  The  foramen  magnum. 

5.  The  left  condyle. 

6.  The  basilar  process. 

7.  The  right  condyle. 

Fig.  4.  The  left  parietal  bone. 

1.  The  frontal  border. 

2.  The  superior  curved  line. 

3.  The  inferior  curved  line. 

4.  The  temporal  border. 

5.  The  eminence. 

6.  The  occipital  border. 

Fig.  5.  The  two  parietal  bones  united. 

1.  The  inner  parietal  or  sagittal  suture. 

2.  The  right  eminence. 


Fig.  6.  The  occipital  bone  {left  side). 

1.  The  basilar  process. 

2.  The  condyle. 

3.  The  temporal  border. 

4.  The  external  protuberance. 

Fig.  7.  The  left  temporal  bone. 

1.  The  zygomatic  process. 

2.  The  external  auditory  opening. 

3.  The  styloid  process. 

4.  The  mastoid  process. 

5.  The  parietal  border. 

Fig.  8.  The  lower  jaw-bone  of  an  infant  at 
birth. 

Fig.  9.  The  lower  jaw-bone  of  an  adult. 

Fig.  JO.  The  lower  jaw-bone  of  an  aged  person. 

Fig.  JJ.  The  sphenoid  bone  {from  the  front). 

1.  The  greater  wing. 

2.  The  lesser  wing. 

3.  The  cavity  or  sinus. 

4.  The  rostrum. 

5.  The  external  pterygoid  process. 

6.  The  internal  pterygoid  process. 

7.  The  greater  wing. 

8.  The  lesser  wing. 

9.  The  orbital  plate. 

10.  The  external  pterygoid  process. 

11.  The  internal  pterygoid  process. 

Fig.  J2.  The  sphenoid  and  occipital  bones 
united. 

1.  The  greater  wing  of  the  sphenoid  bone. 

2.  The  left  condyle  of  the  occipital  bone. 

3.  The  occipital  bone. 


PLATE  10 


PLATE  11. 


Figf.  I.  The  bones  of  an  European  face,  with 
outline  (/<?//  side)  showing  the  relation 
of  the  nasal  bones  which  contribute  to 
the  Grecian  profile. 

Fig.  2.  The  bones  of  an  European  face,  with 
outline  {left  showing  the  relation 
of  the  nasal  bones  which  contribute  to 
the  Roman  profile. 

Fig.  3.  The  bones  of  an  African  face,  with 
outline  {left  side)  showing  the  relation 
of  the  nasal  bones. 

Fig.  4.  The  left  nasal  bone. 

Fig.  5.  The  left  upper  jaw. 

1.  The  nasal  process. 

2.  The  incisor  teeth. 

3.  The  canine  tooth. 

4.  The  bicuspid  teeth. 

5.  The  molar  teeth. 

6.  The  orbital  border. 

7.  The  sinus,  or  antrum  of  Highmore. 

Fig.  6.  The  upper  and  lower  jaw-bones  in  ap- 
position {from  the  front). 

1.  The  right  nasal  process. 

2.  The  malar  process. 

3.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

4.  The  chin. 

5.  The  nasal  process  of  the  left  upper  jaw- 

bone. 

6.  The  malar  process. 

7.  The  intermaxillary  suture. 

8.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Fig.  7.  The  left  malar  or  cheek-bone  ( from  the 
side). 

1.  The  orbital  border. 

2.  The  maxillary  border. 

3.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  orbit. 

4.  The  zygomatic  process. 

Fig.  8.  The  right  malar  or  cheek-bone  {from 
the  si^e). 

1.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  orbit. 

2.  The  zygomatic  process. 

3.  The  maxillary  border. 


Fig.  9.  The  first  cervical  or  Atlas  vertebra 

{from  above). 

1.  The  anterior  tubercle. 

2.  The  left  transverse  process. 

3.  The  spinal  foramen. 

4.  The  spinous  process. 

5.  The  transverse  process. 

6.  The  position  of  the  cheek  ligaments. 

Fig  JO.  The  second  cervical  vertebra. 

1.  The  odontoid  process. 

2.  The  condyloid  process. 

3.  The  body. 

4.  The  bifid  spine. 

Fig.  JI,  The  second  cervical  vertebra  {right 
side) . 

1.  The  odontoid  process. 

2.  The  spine. 

3.  The  condyloid  process. 

4.  The  body. 

Fig.  J2.  The  seventh  cervical  vertebra,  or  ver- 
tebra prominens. 

1.  The  body. 

2.  The  transverse  process. 

3.  The  spinous  process. 

Fig,  J3.  A thoracic  vertebra. 

1.  The  superior  articulating  process. 

2.  The  facet  for  articulation  of  rib. 

3.  The  spinous  process. 

4.  Demi-facet  for  rib. 

5.  The  body. 

6.  Demi-facet  for  rib. 

Fig.  J4.  A lumbar  vertebra. 

1.  The  superior  articulating  process. 

2.  The  transverse  process. 

3.  The  spine. 

4.  The  inferior  articulating  process. 

5.  The  body. 


PLATE  11 


PLATE  12. 


Fig.  i.  Diagram  showing  the  nasal  cartilages 
in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the  face 

{from  the  front) . 

1.  The  junction  of  the  right  nasal  bone  with 

the  frontal. 

2.  The  right  nasal  bone. 

3.  The  upper  angle  of  the  right  upper  lat- 

eral nasal  cartilage. 

4.  The  right  lower  lateral  nasal  cartilages. 

5.  The  right  nasal  sesamoid  cartilages. 

6.  The  tip  of  the  nose. 

7.  The  left  nasal  bone. 

8.  The  left  upper  lateral  nasal  cartilage, 
g.  The  left  lower  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

10.  The  left  nasal  sesamoid  cartilages. 

Fig.  2.  The  nasal  cartilages  in  relation  to  the 
bones  of  the  face  ( from  the  left  side) . 

1.  The  nasal  bone. 

2.  The  nasal  process  of  the  superior  maxil- 

lary bone. 

3.  The  upper  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

4.  The  lower  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

5.  The  nasal  sesamoid  cartilages. 

Fig.  3.  The  nasal  cartilages  {from  below) . 

1.  The  tip  of  the  nose. 

2.  The  right  lower  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

3.  The  inner  fold  of  the  lower  lateral  nasal 

cartilage. 

4.  The  right  sesamoid  cartilages. 

5.  The  septal  cartilage. 

6.  The  left  lower  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

7.  The  inner  fold  of  the  lower  lateral  nasal 

cartilage. 

8.  The  left  sesamoid  cartilages. 

Fig.  4.  Diagram  showing,  on  the  right  side, 
the  muscles  of  tfie  eye  ball;  on  the 
left,  the  elevator  muscle  of  the  upper 
eye-lid. 

I.  The  right  superciliary  ridge. 

2 The  superior  rectus  muscle. 


Fig.  4. — continued. 

3.  The  superior  oblique  muscle. 

4.  The  external  rectus  muscle. 

5.  The  internal  rectus  muscle. 

6.  The  inferior  rectus  muscle. 

7.  The  inferior  oblique  muscle. 

8.  The  left  eyebrow. 

g.  The  levator  palpebrae  superiorus  muscle. 
10.  The  upper  eyelid. 

I r.  The  pupil. 

12.  The  iris. 

1 3.  The  lower  eyelid. 

Fig.  5.  Diagram  showing  the  muscles  of  the  left 
eyeball  {from  the  side). 

1.  The  sinus  of  the  frontal  bone. 

2.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  upper  lid. 

3.  The  superior  rectus  muscle. 

4.  The  external  rectus  muscle. 

5.  The  inferior  oblique  muscle. 

6.  The  inferior  rectus  muscle. 

7.  The  cavity  of  the  upper  jaw-bone  (antrum 

of  Highmore). 

Fig.  6.  Diagram  showing  the  left  eye  {from  the 
side) . 

1.  The  upper  eyelid. 

2.  The  cornea. 

3.  The  pupil. 

4.  The  sclerotic  coat. 

5.  The  lower  eyelid. 

Fig.  7.  Diagram  showing  the  left  eye,  with 
fold  of  the  skin  over  the  upper  eye- 
lid {from  the  front). 

1.  The  eyebrow. 

2.  The  fold  of  the  skin. 

3.  The  upper  eyelid. 

4.  The  iris. 

5.  The  elevation  (caruncle)  of  the  tear  duct. 

6.  The  lower  eyelid. 


1 


PLATE  12 


f.5.7. 


PLATE  13. 


Fig.  i.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  European 
male,  aged  33  years  ( from  the  front). 

1.  The  right  superciliary  ridge. 

2.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  right 

orbit. 

3.  The  right  temporal  bone. 

4.  The  right  malar  bone. 

5.  The  inter-maxillary  suture. 

6.  The  right  mastoid  process. 

7.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

8.  The  prominence  of  the  chin. 

9.  The  suture  between  the  nasal  bones  and 

the  frontal  bone. 

10.  The  left  temporal  bone. 

1 1 . The  vomer. 

12.  The  left  malar  bone. 

13.  The  left  mastoid  process. 

14.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in 

Fig.  \ ( from  the  bach). 

1.  The  vault  of  the  cranium. 

2.  The  inter-parietal  (sagittal)  suture. 

3.  The  left  parietal  eminence. 

4.  The  lamboid  suture  between  the  left  pari- 

etal and  occipital  bones. 

5.  The  left  mastoid  process. 

6.  The  upper  angle  of  the  occipital  bone. 

7.  The  lamboid  suture  between  the  right 

parietal  and  occipital  bones. 

8.  The  external  occipital  protuberance. 

9.  The  right  mastoid  process. 

Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in 
Figs.  \ and  2 (/rom  the  left  side). 

1.  The  vault  of  the  cranium. 

2.  The  coronal  suture. 

3.  The  superciliary  ridge. 

4.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  orbit. 

5.  The  great  wing  of  the  sphenoid  bone. 

6.  The  nasal  bone. 

7.  The  zygoma. 

8.  The  chin. 

9.  The  upper  curved  line  of  the  parietal 

bone. 

10.  The  lower  curved  line  of  the  parietal 

bone. 

11.  The  squamous  suture. 

12.  The  external  occipital  protuberance. 

13.  The  mastoid  process. 

14.  The  angle  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone. 


Fig.  4.  Photograph  of  an  African  skull  ( from 
above). 

1.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  left 

orbit. 

2.  The  frontal  bone. 

3.  The  coronal  suture. 

4.  The  left  parietal  eminence. 

5.  The  junction  of  the  sagittal  and  lamboid 

sutures. 

6.  The  occipital  bone. 

7.  The  coronal  suture. 

8.  The  inter-parietal  (sagittal)  suture. 

9.  The  right  parietal  eminence. 

Fig.  5.  Photograph  of  the  same  skull  as  in 

Fig.  4 {from  below). 

1.  The  incisor  teeth. 

2.  The  palate. 

3.  The  right  zygomatic  arch. 

4.  The  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid 

bone. 

5.  The  apex  of  the  left  temporal  bone. 

6.  The  left  condyle  of  the  occipital  bone. 

7.  The  foramen  magnum. 

8.  The  lower  curved  line  on  the  occipital 

bone. 

9.  A bicuspid  tooth. 

10.  A malar  tooth. 

11.  The  left  zygomatic  arch. 

12.  The  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid 

bone. 

13.  The  apex  of  the  left  temporal  bone. 

14.  The  left  condyle  of  the  occipital  bone. 

15.  The  external  occipital  protuberance. 

Fig.  6.  Photograph  of  the  interior  of  an  adult 
male  European  skull  {section  from 
before  backward). 

1.  The  frontal  sinus. 

2.  The  sphenoidal  and  ethmoidal  cavitie.';. 

3.  Opening  into  cavity  of  the  superior  max- 

illary bone  (Antrum  of  Highmore) 

4.  The  palate  bone. 

5.  The  incisor  teeth. 

6.  The  lateral  sinus. 

7.  The  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid 

bone. 

8.  The  styloid  process. 

9.  The  mastoid  process. 


PLATE  13 


PLATE  14. 


Fig.  i.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult 
male  European,  aged  37  years  (right 
side). 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult 
male  African  (right  side). 

Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult 
male  ourang  outang  (right  side). 

These  figures  are  arranged  to  show  the 

comparative  degree  of  the  facial  angle. 

Fig.  4.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  infant 
at  birth  t from  the  front). 

1.  The  anterior  fontanelle. 

2.  The  right  frontal  bone. 

3.  The  frontal  suture. 

4.  The  right  superior  maxillary  bone. 

5.  The  suture  between  the  two  halves  of 

the  lower  jaw. 

6.  The  left  frontal  bone. 

7.  The  suture  between  the  two  upper  jaw- 

bones (inter-maxillary). 


Fig.  5.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  infant 
at  birth  (left  side), 

1.  The  anterior  fontanelle. 

2.  The  frontal  eminence. 

3.  The  superior  maxillary  bone. 

4.  The  inferior  maxillary  bone. 

5.  The  parietal  eminence. 

6.  The  undeveloped  mastoid  process. 

Fig.  6.  Photograph  of  the  skull  of  an  adult 
male  European,  aged  85  years,  show- 
ing the  obliteration  of  the  sutures  and 
the  shape  of  the  jaw-bones  after  the 
entire  series  of  the  teeth  have  fallen 
out  (left  side). 

1.  The  frontal  eminence. 

2.  The  position  of  the  coronal  suture. 

3.  The  superciliary,  ridges. 

4.  The  superior  maxillary  bone. 

5.  The  inferior  maxillary  bone. 

6.  The  styloid  process. 

7.  The  mastoid  process. 


PLATE  14 


7 


\ 


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% 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  HEAD  AND  FACE. 

The  muscles  of  the  head  and  face  (Plates  15  and  16),  especially  those  called 
from  their  action  the  muscles  of  expression,  are  of  finer  texture  and  paler 
color  than  the  muscles  generally  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  mus- 
cles of  expression  have  no  proper  tendons  of  origin  or  insertion,  are  destitute 
of  sheaths,  and  blend  with  adjacent  muscles  by  the  most  complex  and  delicate 
interlacement  of  their  fibres,  so  that  they  do  not  present  the.  same  arrange- 
ment in  every  individual.  They  often  vary  in  development  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  same  face,  thereby  influencing  the  character  and  degree  of  the 
expressions. 

The  frontal  muscles  (Plate  15,  Figs.  i and  2)  are  the  front  portions  of  the  cuta- 
neous muscle  of  the  scalp  (the  occipito-frontalis).  They  are  upon  either  side  of 
the  forehead,  and  in  bald  persons  are  often  plainly  noticeable  in  outline.  They 
are  formed  of  a thin  kiyer  of  pale  fleshy  fibres  which  extend  upward  about  two 
inches  above  the  eyebrows,  usually  where  the  hair  begins,  and  they  join  with 
the  tendinous  aponeurosis  (epi-cranium)  which  is  a pearly-white  membrane  ex- 
tending over  the  entire  top  of  the  head  (Plate  15).  At  the  root  of  the  nose  in 
the  middle  line,  the  fibres  of  the  frontal  muscles  intersect  and  send  down- 
ward slips  which  are  continuous  with  the  nasal  muscles.  The  middle  and  outer 
fibres  commingle  with  those  of  the  constrictor  muscles  of  the  eye-lids  (orbicular). 
Some  of  the  innermost  fibres  are  attached  to  the  nasal  bones,  some  of  the  outer 
to  the  outer  angles  of  the  orbits ; but  in  no  other  part  have  they  a bony  origin. 

The  occipital  portions  of  the  scalp  muscle  arise  by  short  tendons  from  the 
upper  curved  lines  on  the  occipital  bones  and  the  mastoid  processes  of  the 
temporal  bones,  and  consist  of  parallel  fibres  darker  than  those  of  the  frontal 
portions,  about  an  inch  in  length  (Plate  15,  Fig.  1,  and  Plate  16,  Fig.  i).  They 
join  the  aponeurosis,  which  at  the-  occipital  prominence  separates  them  by  a 
median  area. 

The  aponeurosis  is  very  loosely  attached  to  the  membrane  covering  the 
cranium  (peri-craniurn)  so  that  the  scalp  has  considerable  mobility. 


31 


Anatomy  in  its  Ret  at  ion  to  Art. 

Action  of  the  frontal  muscles. — This  is  seen  in  many  of  the  ordinary  facial 
expressions,  as  surprise  and  doubt,  when  the  frontal  muscles  are  contracted  and 
produce  the  characteristic  transverse  wrinkling  of  the  forehead. 

The  skin  covering  the  head,  which  constitutes  the  scalp,  is  peculiarly  con- 
structed for  the  growth  of  the  hair  and  for  protection  to  the  vault  of  the  cranium. 
It  is  thicKer  and  tougher  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  body. 

The  hairs  of  the  scalp  mostly  diverge  from  the  parietal  eminences  on  either 
side.  They  vary  in  character  according  to  their  color,  length  and  diameter,  being 
straight,  wavy,  curly  and  woolly  according  to  the  straight  or  curved  axis  of  their 
follicles.  Fair  hairs  are  more  delicate  and  finer  than  dark  hairs,  and  are  usually 
more  closely  set  in  the  scalp. 

The  muscles  in  relation  to  the  nose  are  on  each  side,  the  pyramidal,  the  com- 
pressor of  the  nostril  and  the  depressor  of  the  wing  of  the  nose. 

The  pyramidal  muscles  (Plates  15  and  16)  are  really  prolongations  of  tlie 
innermost  fibres  of  the  frontal  muscles  downward  over  the  bridge  of  the  nose, 
upon  which  they  intersect  with  one  another.  The  innermost  fibres  blend  with 
the  adjacent  compressor  and  orbicular  muscles. 

Action  of  the  pyramidal  muscles. — Acting  fromi  below,  they  draw  downward 
the  inner  angles  of  the  eyebrows,  thus  producing  transverse  wrinkles  at  the  root 
of  the  nose,  or  acting  from  above  they  serve  as  dilators  of  the  nostrils. 

The  compressor  muscles  (Plates  15  and  16)  are  triangular  in  shape  and  arise 
from  the  upper  jaws  on  each  side  above  the  canine  teeth  and  join  by  a tendin- 
ous expansion  over  the  dorsum  of  the  nose. 

zAction  of  the  compressor  muscles. — They  compress  the  lateral  cartilages  and 
produce  the  pinched  appearance  seen  in  labored  breathing. 

The  depressor  muscles  arise  from  the  upper  jaw  in  front  of  the  compres- 
sors and  are  inserted  into  the  septum  and  back  parts  of  the  wings  of  the  nose. 

ydction  of  the  depressor  muscles  of  the  nose. — Their  action  serves  to  empha- 
size that  of  the  compressors. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  little  bundles  of  specialized  fibres  on  each  side 
(the  dilator  muscles)  which  pass  from  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  and  contiguous 
nasal  processes  to  the  overlying  skin.  They  assist  in  retaining  the  proper 
openings  of  the  nostrils  in  ordinary  respiration,  as  in  sleep,  from  atmospheric 


32 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


pressure,  but  in  forced  breathing  their  action  is  very  noticeable,  as  it  also  is 
in  the  expressions  of  pride,  anger  and  disdain. 

The  skin  over  the  nose  below  the  forehead  on  the  sides  and  over  the  bridge 
is  thin  and  loose,  but  over  the  cartilaginous  portion  it  is  thick  and  very  adherent 
to  the  parts  beneath. 

The  muscles  of  the  eye-lids  are  the  orbicular,  the  corrugator  and  the  elevator, 
on  each  side. 

The  orbicular  (circular)  muscle  (Plates  15  and  16)  surrounds  the  eyelids, 
its  fleshy  fibres  being  arranged  in  oval  loops  which  are  thjcker  and  redder  in 
relation  to  the  orbits  and  paler  and  exceedingly  delicate  upon  the  eye-lids.  This 
muscle  is  attached  to  the  lower  and  inner  borders  of  the  orbits,  while  above, 
the  fibres  interlace  with  those  of  the  frontal  muscle.  Upon  the  cheek  the 
fibres  of  the  orbicular  blend  with  those  of  the  adjacent  muscles  which  elevate 
the  wing  of  the  nose  and  upper  lip. 

Action  of  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the  eye-lid. — The  chief  action  of  the  whole 
of  this  muscle  is  that  of  a sphincter  as  it  serves  to  close  the  eye-lids,  and  when 
this  action  is  forced  it  will  push  the  eye-ball  into  the  orbit.  In  winking,  only  the 
fibres  upon  the  lids  contract.  This  momentary  closure  of  the  lids  is  accompanied 
by  a slight  inward  drawing  of  the  inner  parts  of  the  lids,  which  serves  to  direct 
the  tears  toward  the  tear-duct. 

The  “ crow’s  feet  ” of  old  age  are  the  permanent  radiating  wrinkles  produced 
by  the  orbital  fibres  drawing  the  brows  down  and  the  lower  lids  up. 

The  corrugator  muscles  are  merely  transverse  fibres  of  the  orbicular  muscles 
which  arise  from  the  inner  parts  of  the  orbits  and  are  inserted  into  the  skin  of 
the  eye-brows.  They  are  the  frowning  muscles,  because  by  their  special  action 
they  wrinkle  the  forehead  vertically  (Plates  17  and  18). 

The  elevator  muscles  (Plate  12,  Figs.  4 and  ^)  arise  within  the  orbits,  pass 
forward  over  the  eye-balls  and  are  inserted  by  broad  tendons  into  the  cartilages 
of  the  upper  eye-lids. 

Action  of  the  elevator  muscles  of  the  upper  eye-lids. — They  are  constantly 
in  action  when  the  eyes  are  open  and  are  relaxed  in  sleep.  In  the  tiger 
and  lion  these  muscles  are  divided  into  several  bundles,  which  are  attached 
into  as  many  parts  of  the  upper  lids,  which,  by  their  united  action,  hold  the 


33 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

lids  away  from  the  eye-balls,  so  that  they  present  a staring  look.  This  is  some- 
times the  case  in  man. 

The  eye-lids  (Plate  12,  Figs.  9,6  and  7)  are  small  translucent  discs  of  cartil- 
age which  are  attached  to  the  margins  of  the  orbits.  The  upper  lid  is  larger,  and 
broader  in  the  middle,  and  more  movable  than  the  lower.  The  interval  between 
the  two  lids  is  called  the  fissure  (or  rictus),  and  it  varies  with  the  relation  of  the 
lids  to  the  eye-ball,  according  as  the  eye  is  directed  upward,  forward  and  down- 
ward. When  the  eyes  are  looking  upward  the  fissures  are  dilated,  the  upper 
lids  arching  as  high  as  the  upper  margins  of  the  cornem,  while  parts  of  the  white 
coats  of  the  eye-balls  are  seen  above  the  lower  lids.  When  the  eyes  are 
looking  straight  forward,  the  upper  lids  slightly  cover  the  tops  of  the  cornece, 
and  the  lower  lids  are  on  a level  with  their  lower  borders.  When  the  eyes 
are  downcast,  the  upper  lids  cover  the  cornece  as  far  as  the  tops  of  the  pupils, 
and  the  lower  lids  are  on  a line  with  the  lower  borders  of  the  cornece. 

The  lower  lids  hold  this  relation  also  in  ordinary  closure  of  the  eyes. 

The  skin  over  the  orbits  and  eye-lids  is  of  peculiar  interest. 

The  eye-brows  consist  of  the  arching  folds  of  integument  over  the  orbital 
ridges  of  the  frontal  bone.  They  are  connected  with  the  constrictor  muscles 
of  the  eye-lids,  and  especially  with  the  transverse  fibres  of  the  orbiculars 
known  as  the  corrugator  muscles.  The  eye-brows  support  short  thick  hairs 
which  at  the  nasal  sides  of  the  arches  are  directed  upward  and  forward, 
and  for  the  rest  of  the  arches  upward  and  outward  with  increasing  obliquity. 
Below  the  eye-brows  the  skin  is  always  destitute  of  fat  and  spread  out  in  a very 
delicate  texture  over  the  eye-lids.  So  thin  is  the  skin  upon  the  upper  lid  that 
when  it  is  closed  over  the  eye,  not  only  can  its  blood-vessels  be  readily  seen 
but  often  the  iris  can  be  distinguished  through  the  tissues.  There  is  some- 
times a cutaneous  fold  at  the  inner  border  of  the  upper  lid  (Plate  12,  Fig.  7), 
which  presents  an  important  element  in  the  study  of  individual  features  that 
the  artist  would  do  well  to  observe  in  portraying  a likeness. 

The  thickest  parts  of  the  eye-lids  are  their  free  borders.  They  are  straight, 
and  when  the  eyes  are  closed  they  are  in  accurate  apposition.  The  eye-lashes 
are  arranged  on  their  edges  in  several  rows,  those  of  the  upper  lid  being  longer 
and  more  numerous  than  those  of  the  lower  lid.  The  upper  ones  curve  up- 
ward while  the  lower  curve  downward. 


34 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


It  should  be  noted  that  there  are  always  pads  of  fat  within  the  orbits  in 
a healthy  state  upon  which  the  eye-balls  rest,  and  when  there  is  wasting  of 
this  fat,  as  in  disease  or  old  age,  the  eyes  are  sunken.  The  apparent  size 
of  the  eye-balls  in  a measure  depends  upon  the  degree  to  which  the  eye- 
lids are  separated.  Usually  the  outer  and  inner  corners  formed  by  the  upper 
and  lower  lids  of  the  two  eyes  are  on  a horizontal  line.  The  eyes  of  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  are  peculiar,  because  the  outer  corners  of  the  lids  are 
raised  and  thus  produce  a distinctive  oblique  appearance.  There  is  a differ- 
ence in  the  outer  and  inner  corners  of  the  eye-lids  which  the  artist  should 
particularly  observe..  The  outer  corner  is  formed  by  the  upper  lid  folding 
over  the  lower.  At  the  inner  corner  there  is  a small  vascular  elevation 
formed  by  a fold  of  the  mucous  membrane  where  the  tear-ducts  receive  the 
tears  and  convey  them  to  the  interior  of  the  nose.  At  the  latter  is  also  a 
little  subcutaneous  band  (tendo-oculi),  which  connects  the  lower  eye-lid 
with  the  inner  wall  of  the  orbit,  and  occasions  a tightening  of  the  integu- 
ment in  this  locality. 

The  white  (sclerotic)  coat  of  the  eye-ball  (Plate  12)  is  the  protective  cov- 
ering over  the  sensitive  interior  (retina,  etc.).  The  cornea  is  the  transparent 
prominent  part  which,  somewhat  like  a watch-glass,  is  applied  upon  the 
sclerotic,  and  through  which  the  iris  can  be  seen. 

The  iris  (rainbow)  is  the  circular  contractile  membrane  in  front,  with  a 
variable  opening  called  the  pupil,  which  regulates  the  amount  of  light  entering 
upon  the  interior  of  the  eye-ball,  and  corresponds  to  a diaphragm  of  a photo- 
graphic camera.  The  color  of  the  eye  depends  upon  the  tint  of  the  pigment 
in  the  iris.  The  iris  is  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  sympathetic  nervous 
system,  the  pupil  being  dilated  in  the  dark,  and  contracted  in  bright  light.  It 
is  often  peculiarly  dilated  upon  arrested  exercise,  as  after  dancing.  The  pupil 
is  normally  always  round  and  a little  to  the  inner  (nasal)  side  of  the  centre  of 
the  iris.  The  exposed  portions  of  the  cornea  and  sclerotic  and  the  ocular 
portions  of  the  lids  are  lined  by  a membrane  (conjunctiva) , which  is  kept 
moist  by  the  tears.  It  is  owing  to  the  glistening  of  this  membrane  when 
light  falls  on  it  that  what  is  called  “the  high  light  of  the  eyes”  becomes  an 
important  factor  in  expression. 


35 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  muscles  which  surround  the  mouth  are  remarkable  for  their  interdepend- 
ence and  for  their  great  mobility. 

The  orbicular  muscle  of  the  mouth  is  composed  principally  of  circular  fibres, 
like  other  sphincter  muscles,  and  has  very  slight  attachments  to  the  neighboring 
bones.  The  variety  in  the  prominence  of  the  lips  in  different  individuals  depends 
upon  the  size  and  thickness  of  this  muscle.  It  consists  of  two  portions,  each 
possessing  very  marked  differences  from  the  other  in  the  arrangement  of  its 
fibres. 

The  labial  portion  (the . lips)  is  composed  of  very  thin  pale  fibres  sur- 
rounding the  mouth  and  is  not  attached  to  the  bone.  The  facial  portion  is 
broader,  its  fibres  at  the  outer  borders  of  the  upper  and  lower  lips  inter- 
mingling with  the  fibres  of  other  muscles  which  converge  toward  it  from  the 
surrounding  parts  of  the  face.  It  is  connected  on  each  side  to  the  bone  by 
two  bundles  of  fibres  in  the  upper  lip,  one  in  relation  to  the  incisor  teeth, 
and  the  other  to  the  septum  of  the  nose,  and  by  a single  bundle  on  each 
side,  in  the  lower  lip  to  the  lower  jaw  in  relation  to  the  canine  tooth.  The 
little  furrow  (the  philtrum)  usually  noticeable  in  the  female  face  from  the 
nose  to  the  upper  lip,  is  formed  by  two  tiny  slips  extending  from  the  orbicular 
to  the  septum  of  the  nose. 

Action  of  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the  mouth. — The  ordinary  action  of  this 
muscle  closes  the  lips,  and  on  account  of  the  intimate  connection  with  the  skin 
of  the  lips,  its  forcible  contraction  produces  radiating  wrinkles  about  the  mouth 
in  the  skin  of  elderly  persons.  The  orbicular  counteracts  all  the  other  muscles 
which  move  the  lips,  the  infinite  play  and  variety  of  expression  about  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  depending  upon  the  counterbalancing  of  their  opposing 
actions. 

There  are  upon  each  side  of  the  face  muscles  which  arise  from  the  nasal 
processes  of  the  upper  jaws  near  the  orbits.  They  are  called  the  elevators  of  the 
wings  of  the  nose  and  upper  lips,  from  their  action  upon  those  parts  into  which 
they  are  inserted. 

Action  of  the  elevator  muscles  of  the  wings  of  the  nose  and  upper  lips. — These 
muscles  serve  to  dilate  the  nostrils  and  to  draw  upward  at  the  same  time  the 
upper  lips  and  wings  of  the  nose,  thus  producing  the  changes  in  the  countenance 
in  the  expressions  of  indignation,  disgust  and  derision  (Plate  18).  Their  habitual 

36 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


use  occasions  the  furrows  which  extend  from  the  sides  of  the  nose  to  the  cor- 
ners of  the  mouth. 

Besides  these  there  are  other  elevator  muscles  which  act  upon  the  upper 
lip  alone  (the  proper  elevators),  and  one  on  each  side  which  blends  with 
the  fibres  of  the  orbicular  at  the  angles  of  the  mouth  (elevators  of  the 
angles). 

The  corners  of  the  mouth  when  it  is  closed  are  in  relation  to  the  first 
bicuspid  teeth.  There  is  great  variability  in  the  length  and  thickness  of  the 
lips,  depending  upon  the  peculiarities  of  age,  sex  and  race.  The  vermilion 
color  of  the  borders  of  the  lips  is  due  to  the  translucent  nature  of  the 
epithelium  with  which  they  are  covered,  and  to  the  vascularity  of  the  sub- 
jacent tissues  which  can  be  seen  through  it.  When  the  mouth  is  closed, 
the  upper  lip  is  in  the  form  of  a bow,  which  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of 
this  part  of  the  female  face.  The  upper  lip  usually  advances  beyond  the  lower 
lip,  and  sometimes  this  gives  a panting  expression.  When  it  is  shorter  than  the 
lower  lip,  without  being  less  prominent,  it  is  often  a distinctive  feature  con- 
tributing much  to  the  beauty  of  the  mouth. 

The  groups  of  the  facial  muscles  above  explained  constitute  those  muscles 
which  by  their  action  produce  what  may  be  described  as  the  intdlectnal  expres- 
sions (Plate  16,  Fig.  i).  They  are  especially  developed  in  the  human  face  and 
give  character  to  the  features,  according  to  the  predominant  traits  of  the 
individual  even  in  repose,  or  after  death.  As  Sir  Charles  Bell  pointed  out,  their 
function  is  to  produce  the  nobler  expressions  of  the  human  countenance,  in 
contrast  to  that  of  the  muscles  peculiarly  animal  (Plate  16,  Fig.  2),  which  act 
upon  the  lower  part  of  the  face. 

Adjoining  the  muscles  which  raise  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  there  are  the 
;ygomatic  major  and  minor,  which  have  origin  higher  on  the  face,  from  the  cheek 
at  its  junction  with  the  zygoma  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  the  fibres  of  which 
also  blend  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  with  the  orbicular. 

Action  of  the  zygomatic  muscles — Their  action  is  seen  in  laughing  and 
snarling.  They  are  especially  developed  in  the  dog. 

Counteracting  the  above  are  muscles  which  act  upon  the  lower  lip. 


37 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 

The  depressor  mnscte  of  the  angte  of  the  month  on  each  side  arises  from  the 
subjacent  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  blends  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth  with  the  other 
muscles  there,  but  especially  with  the  zymotic  or  snarling  muscle.  The  peculiar 
interlacement  of  the  fibres  of  these  muscles  with  so  many  others  at  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  (Plates  17  and  18)  renders  these  parts  the  most  mobile  of  the  face. 

Action  of  the  depressor  mnscte  of  the  angle  of  the  month. — This  muscle  is 
the  most  expressive  of  all  the  facial  muscles  and  plays  an  important  role  in 
melanchoty  and  sorrowful  emotions  (Plate  18,  Figs.  7 and  6). 

The  lower  lip  is  also  provided  with  other  depressor  muscles  which,  taking 
origin  from  the  body  of  the  lower  jaw,  draw  the  lower  lip  downward  and  a 
little  outward  as  in  the  expression  of  irony  or  sarcasm. 

Besides  these,  two  small  bundles  of  fibres  occur  in  the  dense  tissue  com- 
posing the  chin  which  raise  it  (elevators  of  the  chin)  and  protrude  the  lower  lip 
(Plate  ]5,  Figs,  i and  2). 

Beneath  the  integument  of  the  front  and  sides  of  the  neck  (page  47)  in  man 
there  is  a rudimentary  muscular  layer  of  tissue  (platysma)  which  extends  on  to 
the  face  as  high  as  the  cheek  (Plate  15,  Fig.  7).  The  topmost  fibres  pass  trans- 
versely to  the  corners  of  the  mouth  and  blend  with  the  other  muscles.  These 
fibres  have  been  called  the  laughing  muscles  (risorius)  because  sometimes  they 
are  unusually  developed  and  then  produce  the  convulsive  twitchings  in  the  face 
which  become  manifest  in  good  humor.  There  is  often  great  diversity  in  the 
development  of  these  fibres  on  the  two  sides  of  the  same  face.  As  they  usually 
exist  they  produce  the  smile  of  scorn  or  derision. 

Within  the  mouth  on  each  side  there  are  the  buccinator  muscles,  which  are 
properly  a continuation  of  the  series  of  constrictor  muscles  of  the  pharynx 
(Plate  20),  as  they  are  chiefly  concerned  with  keeping  the  food  between  the 
teeth  during  mastication.  These  muscles,  unlike  the  proper  facial  muscles,  are 
provided  with  sheaths  which  greatly  increase  their  power,  and  as  they  are 
inserted  within  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  they  widen  its  aperture  by  drawing 
upon  its  corners  (Plate  20). 

Action  op  the  buccinator  muscles.  Their  action  is  seen  in  whistling  or  in 
blowing  a trumpet. 


38 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  muscles  of  the  human  face  are  difficult  to  understand  intelligently  for 
many  reasons,  and  it  is  not  enough  to  enumerate  them  with  a brief  statement  of 
their  functions.  They  should  be  critically  examined  by  all  who  are  conscientious 
students.  The  author  has  taken  pains  therefore  to  show  drawings  of  the  facial 
muscles  which  he  has  verified  by  dissection,  and  to  dwell  upon  such  details 
regarding  them  as  he  considers  of  use  in  portraiture.  Knowledge  of  the  prob- 
able arrangement  of  the  various  muscles  beneath  the  skin  should  explain 
many  of  the  facial  peculiarities  and  serve  to  fix  attention,  just  as  observance  of 
the  bony  landmarks  must  help  in  determining  the  form  of  the  head. 

The  skin  of  the  face  is  generally  very  fine  and  thin  and  adherent  to  the 
parts  beneath,  except  upon  the  eye-lids,  as  already  mentioned.  There  is  much 
fat  in  the  sub-cutaneous  tissue  of  the  face,  especially  in  the  front  parts  of  the 
cheeks  in  relation  to  the  zygomatic  muscles  which  take  origin  from  the  cheek 
bones  and  pass  to  the  mouth.  The  intimate  association  of  the  skin  with  many 
of  the  subjacent  muscles  produces,  through  their  habitual  use,  the  facial  dimples, 
furrows  and  markings  characteristic  of  certain  expressions.  A careful  study  of 
these  lines  and  their  varying  modifications  will  prove  of  great  value  to  the 
artist,  especially  in  young  children.  In  the  ignorant  who  cannot  readily  com- 
municate ideas  or  describe  sensations  by  speech,  they  are  usually  very  much 
exaggerated. 

The  nose,  besides  being  the  organ  of  the  special  sense  of  smell,  is  the  channel 
for  respiration  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  The  nostrils  being  cartilaginous  and 
movable  by  the  adjacent  muscles,  are  expanded  and  contracted  in  correspondence 
with  the  motions  of  the  chest,  especially  when  the  respiration  is  affected  by  the 
emotions.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  changes  of  the  features  in  the 
human  countenance  are  not  directly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  mind,  and  that  the 
expressions  characteristic  of  strong  emotions,  passions,  or  affections,  are  the  phys- 
ical manifestations  of  impressions  upon  the  heart  and  lungs.  This  is  evident  in 
the  contortions  of  a child’s  face  at  birth,  before  the  brain  is  capable  of  mental 
effort.  The  habitual  expressions  which  stamp  the  features  with  individual  char- 
acter are  often  due  to  the  exercise  of  the  will  in  self-control,  or  to  the  mind  which 
dwells  upon  certain  passions.  On  this  account  life-masks  are  of  great  value. 


39 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  muscles  which  are  attached  to  the  eye-balls  and  control  their  movements 
are  of  peculiar  interest — for  they  serve  to  bring  the  apparatus  of  vision  in 
relation  to  external  objects.  There  are  four  straight  and  two  oblique  muscles 
of  the  eye-ball.  (Plate  12,  Figs.  4 and  ^.) 

Action  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye-balls.  Their  action  is  chiefly  in  adjusting 
the  two  eyes  toward  a common  point  in  order  to  obtain  single  vision. 

The  incidental  movements  attending  the  expressions  in  hope,  devotion, 
shyness,  cunning  or  shame  are  also  produced  by  them  because  they  are  not  only 
under  the  influence  of  the  will,  but  are  also  affected  by  the  state  of  the  heart  and 
mind.  To  these  influences  are  due  the  wonderful  changes  of  the  countenance 
which  may  say  more  than  ever  can  be  translated  by  word  of  mouth. 

Aluch  depends  upon  the  organ  of  the  eye,  the  muscles  which  act  upon  it, 
the  eye-brows,  the  eye-lids,  the  eye-lashes — in  expression,  and  they  should  be 
studied  with  extreme  care.  The  orbicularis  (page  33)  closes  the  eye-lids.  Its 
fibres  about  the  margins  of  the  lids  are  extremely  slender  and  fine : they 
serve  to  close  the  eye-  gently  as  in  winking  or  in  sleep.  The  stronger  band  of 
fibres  round  the  orbits  are  brought  into  action  and  snap  the  lids  together  when 
something  irritating  is  thrown  into  the  eye.  The  outer  circles  also  oppose 
the  frontal  muscles  and  draw  down  the  eye-brows.  The  nasal  slip  (page  32) 
from  the  frontal  acts  differently  from  the  rest  of  that  muscle  and  draws  the 
inner  extremity  of  the  eye-brow  downward.  The  corrugator  muscle  (page  33) 
being  inserted  into  the  skin  under  the  eye-brow  serves  to  knit  the  brows, 
when  the  fellow  muscles  act  in  unison.  Elevation  of  character  is  indicated  by 
lines  upon  the  forehead  which  result  from  the  habitual  play  of  these  muscles. 
If  there  is  fulness  of  the  forehead  and  round  the  eyes  it  is  apt  to  give  a dull, 
heavy  expression. 

Beauty  usually  implies  a large  eye,  and  it  is  in  the  eye  that  one  looks  for 
meaning,  sentiment  and  reproof.  An  effect  of  power  is  greatly  due  to  a project- 
ing eye-brow.  The  eyes  naturally  roll  upward  in  sleep,  languor  and  depression. 
In  bodily  pain  or  fear  of  death  this  action  is  irresistible.  Bell  attributes  to  the 
eye  the  loftier  emotions,  and  describes  the  effect  of  its  influence  “ in  reverence, 
in  devotion,  in  agony  of  mind,  in  all  sentiments  of  pity.” 

The  straight  muscles  of  the  eye-ball  are  governed  by  the  will  alone,  but  the 


40 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


oblique  muscles  have  sympathetic  nerve  filaments  which  bring  them  under  the 
influence  of  the  sympathetic  nerve,  so  that  they  act  when  the  other  muscles  cease 
to  operate.  Hence,  in  sleep,  in  fainting  or  in  approaching  death,  the  eye-balls  are 
revolved,  and  it  is  consolatory  to  reflect  that  at  such  moments  the  semblance  of 
agony  may  be  only  apparent,  and  dependent  on  the  condition  of  insensibility. 

We  see  this,  often  where  a person  is  groping  for  a name  or  word  for  the 
moment  forgotten,  and  is  apt  to  look  upward  in  the  corner  of  the  room  for 
the  lost  thought:  but  always  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  trunk  move  in 
accordance  with  the  glance.  It  is  not  only  the  eye- balls  which  are  turned. 

In  laughing  or  singing  the  orbicular  muscles  act  powerfully  and  press 
against  the  eye-balls,  so  as  to  prevent  too  great  a determination  of  blood  to 
the  delicate  vessels  of  the  organ,  which  would  otherwise  be  induced  by  these 
emotions.  In  forced  inspiration  we  instinctively  droop  the  lids,  and  in  sneering 
and  coughing  it  is  the  same 

In  the  case  of  a man  suffering  from  intoxication,  it  is  curious  to  note 
how  the  muscles  of  the  eye-balls  contend  with  each  other  for  mastery;  but 
this  may  be  noticed  equally  to  be  the  case  throughout  the  whole  muscular 
system  in  such  a condition. 

The  muscles  of  the  Ear. — When  the  skin  is  removed  from  the  side  of 
the  head,  the  temple,  there  is  found  to  be  a variable  amount  of  fat  in  the 
sub-cutaneous  tissue,  beside  the  rudimentary  auricular  muscles,  one  in  front, 
one  above,  and  one  behind  the  auricle  (Plate  16,  Fig.  i).  These  auricular 
muscles  are  very  imperfectly  developed  in  man,  and  consequently  the  auricle 
possesses  a limited  functional  capability. 

The  auricle,  commonly  called  the  ear,  is  formed  of  a fibro-cartilaginous 
framework,  covered  with  integument,  and  is  expanded  from  the  side  of  the 
head.  There  are  many  peculiar  elevations  and  concavities  in  the  auricle  which 
are  important  and  deserving  of  close  attention  by  a student  of  physiognomy. 
The  border  of  the  auricle  is  folded  over  and  is  called  the  helix.  The  eleva- 
tion within  it  is  the  anti-helix.  The  deep  concavity  leading  into  the  auditory 
opening  is  the  concha.  In  front  of  the  concha  is  the  tragus,  a conical  elevation 
often  provided  with  hairs.  Below  the  concha  is  the  soft  pendulous  portion 
of  the  auricle,  the  lobule  (Plate  16,  Fig.  i),  which  has  no  cartilage  in  it. 


41 


Anatomy  in  its  Relition  to  Art. 

There  is  great  variability  in  the  development  of  the  auricle,  both  as  to  its 
conformation  and  as  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  set  on  the  side  of  the  head. 
The  margin  of  the  folded  border  or  helix  is  often  irregular  and  presents  a conical 
process  at  its  upper  part.  The  ancients  used  to  represent  the  Fauns  and  Satyrs 
as  having  the  helix  unfolded  so  that  the  conical  process  gave  the  auricle  a 
pointed  appearance.  Darwin  laid  stress  on  this  feature  of  the  human  ear  as 
an  evidence  of  man’s  descent  from  the  ape.  The  skin  over  the  auricle  is  thin 
and  generally  closely  adherent  to  its  framework.  The  auricle  is  a conspicuous 
and  distinctive  feature  in  every  individual  and  very  difficult  to  represent  cor- 
rectly, even  with  the  closest  observation.  Below  and  in  front  of  the  ear  is  the 
large  salivary  gland  (parotid)  (Plate  20),  which,  although  bound  down  by 
the  fascia  covering  the  adjacent  (masseter)  muscle,  contributes  to  the  round- 
ness of  the  face  below  the  zygom.a. 

Beneath  the  auricular  muscles  is  the  temporal  fascia,  a strong,  pearly  white 
sheath  which  encloses  the  temporal  muscle.  The  sheath  is  attached  to  the. 
uppermost  of  the  temporal  ridges  on  the  side  of  the  skull  (Plate  16,  Fig.  i,  and 
Plate  10,  Fig.  2.) 

The  temporal  muscle  (Plate  16,  Figs,  i and  2,  and  Plate  36,  Fig.  2)  is  fan- 
shaped, its  fibres  converging  to  a strong  tendon  inserted  at  the  front  process 
of  the  branch  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  temporal  muscle  arises  from  the  lower- 
most ridge  of  the  temporal  bone. 

Action  of  the  temporal  muscle. — Its  action  is  to  draw  forcibly  the  lower 
jaw  up  against  the  upper,  and  its  chief  use  is  in  mastication.  There  is  usually  a 
pad  of  fat  between  the  sheath  of  the  muscle  and  its  insertion  at  the  zygoma, 
which  contributes  to  the  fullness  of  the  side  of  the  head,  and  when  it  becomes 
wasted  in  old  age  or  from  disease  it  occasions  the  noticeable  hollows  at  the 
temples  in  those  conditions. 

The  masseter  muscles  (Plate  16,  Fig.  2)  arise  by  short,  thick  tendons  from 
the  upper  jaw-bones,  and  the  zygomas  in  two  strata  of  fibres  which  pass 
obliquely  backward  and  are  inserted  into  the  angles  and  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw.  The  masseter  muscles  assist  largely  in  producing  the  contour  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  face. 

Action  of  the  masseter  muscles. — They  draw  upward  the  lower  jaw  and 
assist  the  temporal  muscles  in  mastication. 


42 


PLATE  15. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  head, 
face  and  neck  {right  side). 

1.  The  aponeurosis  of  the  occipito-frontal 

muscle  (galea  capitis). 

2.  The  position  of  the  upper  curved  ridge 

on  the  temporal  bone. 

3.  The  temporal  muscle. 

4.  The  external  auditory  opening. 

5.  The  occipital  muscle. 

6.  The  external  occipital  protuberance. 

7.  The  mastoid  process. 

8.  The  sterno-cleido  mastoid  muscle. 

g.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  digastric 
muscle. 

10.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

11.  The  complexus  muscle. 

12.  The  calvicular  portion  of  the  sterno- 

mastoid  muscle. 

13.  The  frontal  muscle. 

14.  The  pyramidalis  nasi  muscle. 

1 5.  The  orbicularis  palpebrarum  muscle. 

16.  The  compressor  naris  muscle. 

17.  The  levator  labii  superioris  muscle. 

18.  The  zygomatic  muscle. 

ig.  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle. 

20.  The  levator  menti  muscle. 

21.  The  depressor  anguli  oris  muscle. 

22.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  digastric 

muscle. 

23.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  omo-hyoid 

muscle. 

24.  The  sterno-thyroid  muscle. 

25.  The  sternal  portion  of  the  cleido-mastoid 

muscle. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  head, 
face  and  neck  ( from  the  front). 

1.  The  right  frontal  muscle. 

2.  The  position  of  the  corrugator  supercilii 

muscle. 


Fig.  2— continued. 

3.  The  external  angular  process  of  the 

orbit. 

4.  The  orbicularis  palpebrarum  muscle. 

5.  The  zygomatic  muscles  (majorand  minor). 

6.  The  right  masseter  muscle. 

7.  The  levator  menti  muscle. 

8.  The  depressor  anguli  muscle, 
g.  The  hyoid  bone. 

10.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid. 

' II.  The  sterno-hyoid  muscle, 
j 12.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  sterno- 
mastoid  muscle. 

13.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  omo-hyoid 

muscle. 

14.  The  left  frontal  muscle. 

15.  The  corrugator  muscle. 

16.  The  compressor  naris  muscle. 

17.  The  zygomatic  muscles. 

18.  The  left  masseter  muscle, 
ig.  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle. 

20.  The  left  depressor  anguli  oris  muscle. 

21.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle. 

22.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  sterno- 

mastoid  muscle. 

23.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

Fig.  3.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  about  the  eye- 
lids {left  side). 

1.  The  frontal  muscle. 

2.  The  pyramidal  muscle  of  the  nose. 

3.  The  orbicular  muscle  of  the  eye. 

4.  The  compressor  muscle  of  the  nose. 

Fig.  4.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  at  the  wing  of 
the  nose  and  the  upper  lip  (left  side). 

1.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  nostril. 

2.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  upper  lip. 

3.  The  superior  labial  portion  of  the  orbicu- 

lar muscle. 


( Continued ) 


PLATE  15 


PLATE  15.  ( Continued) 


Fig.  5.  Diagram  showing  the  upper  portion  of 
the  platysma,  muscle  blending  with 
the  other  muscles  at  the  corner  of 
the  mouth  {left  side). 

1.  The  frontal  muscle. 

2.  The  pyramidal  muscle  of  the  nose. 

3.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  nostril. 

4.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  upper  lip. 

5.  The  zygomatic  minor  muscle. 

6.  The  zygomatic  major  muscle. 

7.  The  orbicular  muscle  of  the  mouth. 

8.  The  musculus  risorius  (laughing  muscle). 

9.  The  platysma  myoides  muscle. 

Fig.  6.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  lip 

{left  side.) 

1.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  upper  lip. 

2.  The  zygomatic  minor  muscle. 


i Fig.  6 — continued, 
i 3.  The  zygomatic  major  muscle. 

4.  The  superior  labial  portion  of  the  orbicu- 
lar muscle. 

Fig.  7.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  about  the 
mouth  and  lower  lip  {left  side''. 

1.  The  depressor  muscle  of  the  nostril. 

2.  The  superior  labial  portion  of  the  orbicu- 

lar muscle.  - 

3.  The  inferior  labial  portion  of  the  orbicu- 

lar muscle. 

4.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  chin. 

5.  The  depressor  muscle  of  the  lower  lip. 

6.  The  buccinator  muscle. 

7.  The  depressor  anguli  oris  muscle. 


PLATE  16. 


Figf.  J.  The  muscles  of  the  head  and  face  upon 
the  left  side  whose  action  produce  the 
intellectual  expressions. 

1.  The  scalp. 

2.  The  frontal  muscle. 

3.  The  superciliary  ridge, 

4.  The  position  of  the  corrugator  muscle. 

5.  The  attachment  of  the  frontal  muscle  at 

the  external  angular  process  of  the  orbit. 

6.  The  pyramidalis  nasi  muscle.  j 

7.  The  elevator  muscle  of  the  wing  of  the  j 

nose. 

8.  The  compressor  naris  muscle. 

9.  The  elevator  muscles  of  the  wing  of  the 

nose  and  upper  lip. 

10.  The  proper  elevator  muscle  of  the  upper 

lip. 

11.  The  dilator  naris  muscle. 

12.  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle. 

13.  The  tendon  of  the  occipito  frontalis  mus- 

cle (galea  capitis). 

14.  The  upper  curved  line  on  the  parietal 

bone. 

15.  The  lower  curved  line  on  the  parietal 

bone. 

16.  The  attolens  aurem  muscle. 

17.  The  attrahens  aurem  muscle. 

18.  The  retrahens  aurem  muscle, 

ig.  The  concha. 

20.  The  auricle. 

21.  The  occipital  portion  of  the  occipito-fron- 

talis  muscle. 


Fig.  f.— continued. 

22.  The  lobe  of  the  ear. 

23.  The  molar  teeth. 

24.  The  external  pterygoid  process  of  the 

sphenoid  bone. 

25.  The  styloid  process  of  the  temporal  bone. 

Fig.  2.  The  leftside  of  the  head  and  face  show- 
ing the  muscles  whose  action  produce 
the  expressions  peculiarly  animal. 

1.  The  scalp. 

2.  The  superciliary  ridge. 

3.  The  zygoma. 

4.  The  zygomaticus  minor  muscle. 

5.  The  zygomaticus  major  muscle. 

6.  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle. 

7.  The  levator  menti  muscle. 

8.  The  depressor  muscle  of  the  lower  lip. 

9.  The  depressor  muscle  of  the  angle  of  the 
mouth. 

10.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  digastric 
muscle. 

1 1 . The  hyoid  bone. 

12.  The  attachment  of  the  temporal  muscle. 

13.  The  temporal  muscle. 

14.  The  masseter  muscle. 

15.  The  masseter  muscle. 

I 16.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  digastric 
muscle. 

! 17.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

1 18.  The  stylo-hyoid  muscle. 


i 


PLATE  16 


IV 


PLATE  17. 


Fig;.  I 
Fig.  2 

Fig.  3 


. Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  laughter.  Fig.  4.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles 

astonishment. 

. Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in 

laughter.  Fig,  5.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  horror. 

, Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  astonishment.  ^ Fig.  6.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles 

I horror. 


as  in 


as  in 


PLATE  17 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


PLATE  18. 


Fig.  i.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  anger. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in 
anger. 

Figi  3.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  disgust. 


Fig.  4.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in 
disgust. 

Fig.  5.  Drawing  of  the  face  as  in  grief. 

Fig.  6.  Diagram  of  the  facial  muscles  as  in 
grief. 


N.  B. — The  drawings  upon  Plates  17  and  18,  showing  the  face  in  the  several  typical 
expressions,  were  suggested  by  a remarkable  work,  entitled  “ Symphonies  d’Expressions,” 
by  Maurice  Heyman,  in  which  that  artist  has  endeavored  to  portray  through  a study  of 
his  own  features  the  progressive  changes  observable  in  the  various  expressions. 

The  diagrams  of  the  facial  muscles  are  based  upon  the  author’s  dissections  and  are 
intended  to  show  how  the  same  muscles  under  different  influences,  can  produce  the 
different  expressions. 


PLATE  18 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  6 


-P. 


>* 


V 


■ ' ^ *‘  4^ 

■fj^JMtAM  >“■  i*4 


Alutumy  in  its  Relatiun  to  Art. 


THE  NECK. 

The  cranium  is  supported  somewhat  behind  its  axis  upon  the  most  flexible 
portion  of  the  vertebral  column,  which  is  the  skeleton  of  the  neck,  and  is 
composed  of  seven  irregular  bony  segments  called  vertebrm  (Plate  19). 
The  soft  structures  in  this  region  cover  so  well  the  skeleton  that  its  prominences 
are  not  conspicuous  (Plate  20),  but  when  the  head  is  bent  forward  the  spines 
of  all  the  vertebrm,  excepting  the  topmost,  can  be  felt  through  the  integument, 
and  the  spine  of  the  seventh  is  always  so  well  marked  that  it  is  a landmark 
and  is  called  the  prominent  vertebra.  When  the  body  is  upright  with  the 
shoulders  squared,  and  the  head  held  so  that  the  face  looks  straight  forward, 
a line  drawn  from  the  occipital  protuberance  along  the  lower  jaw  to  the 
chin  is  about  parallel  with  a line  drawn  from  the  lower  border  of  the  first 
thoracic  vertebra  to  the  top  of  the  sternum  or  breast  bone,  and  these  tw'o 
lines  may  be  considered  as  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  neck.  (Plates 
19  and  20.) 

The  several  v^ertebrm  which  have  features  of  interest  in  this  connection  are 
best  understood  by  an  examination  of  Plates  11  and  38.  I'he  chief  points  to  be 
noted  are  the  differences  between  the  first  and  second  vertebrce.  The  first  is 
called  the  Atlas  vertebra  (Plate  11,  Fig.  9)  because  it  supports  the  head,  after  the 
fable  of  Atlas  supporting  the  globe  on  his  shoulders.  It  is  especially  adapted  for 
the  reception  of  the  condyles  of  the  occipital  bone  (Plate  10,  Fig.  3)  so  that  in 
the  nodding  motions  of  the  head,  as  in  expressing  affirmation,  the  skull  rocks 
forward  and  backward  upon  the  Atlas  vertebra.  I he  second  cervical  vertebra 
is  provided  with  a peculiar  bony  pivot  which  projects  upward  from  the  thick 
part  of  it  (Plate  11,  Figs.  10  and  11),  and  about  this  the  first  vertebra,  carrying 
the  skull  with  it,  rotates  in  the  right  and  left  sideway  movements  of  the  head 
as  in  expressing  negation.  The  intervening  vertebrm  between  the  second  and 
the  seventh  have  thick  bodies  for  support  of  the  head  and  flattened  arches 
for  protection  of  the  spinal  cord.  (Plates  19  and  21.) 

The  seventh  vertebra,  or  vertebra  promine  ns  (Plate  11,  Fig.  12),  is  pecu- 
liar for  the  length  of  its  spinus  process.  Between  the  several  vertebrm  in  this 


43 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

region  there  are,  as  elsewhere  in  the  spinal  column,  intervening  discs  of  cartilage 
(Plate  24).  In  the  neck  the  vertebrae  and  cartilages  are  so  arranged  that  they 
admit  of  great  freedom  of  motion  (Plates  22  and  23). 

Extending  downward  from  the  occipital  protuberance  and  attached  to  the 
spines  of  all  the  cervical  vertebrm,  except  the  first,  is  a dense  fibrous  structure 
called  the  ligamcntiim  nuchce.  In  the  ruminating  animals  it  serves  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  head,  but  in  man  it  is  rudimentary  and  merely  forms  a 
septum  or  partition  between  the  lateral  muscular  masses  at  the  back  of 
the  neck. 

In  the  front  of  the  neck,  the  hyoid  bone  and  the  external  cartilages  of 
the  larynx  should  be  noted  in  relation  to  the  chin  above,  and  the  top  of  the 
sternum  below  (Plate  19).  These  structures  are  very  movable  in  order  that 
they  may  accommodate  themselves  to  the  efforts  of  swallowing  and  forced 
respiration,  and  to  changes  of  position  in  consequence  of  the  flexibility  of  the 
cervical  vertebra.  In  the  adult,  when  the  head  is  in  the  erect  position  (Plates 
19  and  20),  the  hyoid  bone  can  be  felt  just  below  the  lower  jaw.  About  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  below  the  hyoid  bone  is  the  thyroid  cartilage,  the  notch  in 
front  of  which,  or  cAdam’s  zApple,  is  always  recognizable,  but  more  prominent 
in  the  male  than  in  the  female. 

At  the  lower  border  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  is  a depression  and  then  a 
slight  prominence  formed  by  the  cricoid  cartilage,  which  is  a landmark, 

because  it  can  be  easily  detected  in  fat  as  well  as  in  lean  persons  of  both 
sexes  and  at  all  periods  of  life.  In  the  adult,  when  the  head  is  bent  back- 
ward, the  space  between  the  top  of  the  sternum  and  the  chin  is  about  double 

that  which  it  measures  when  the  head  is  in  the  natural  position,  and  it  is 
chiefly  increased  between  the  chin  and  the  cricoid  cartilage.  In  the  child, 

however,  with  the  head  similarly  placed,  the  space  is  increased  between  the 
cricoid  cartilage  and  the  top  of  the  sternum,  because  in  the  child  the  cricoid 
cartilage  occupies  relatively  a higher  position  in  the  neck,  owing  to  the  dimin- 
utive size  of  the  larynx. 

The  trachea  can  usually  be  felt  just  below  the  cricoid  cartilage,  but  it 
recedes  as  it  descends,  and  at  the  root  of  the  neck  above  the  sternum  it  is 
at  a considerable  distance  from  the  surface  (Plates  19  and  21). 


44 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  general  development  of  tiie  neck  varies  in  different  individuals,  being 
proportionate  to  the  stature.  The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  neck  is 
sometimes  more  apparent  than  real,  frequently  resulting  from  some  peculiarity 
in  the  conformation  of  the  shoulders.  Its  breadth  is  also  variable. 

The  hyoid  bone  is  unattached  to  the  general  skeleton  and  serves  to  sup- 
port the  muscles  of  the  tongue  (Plate  21,  Fig.  i).  The  elevator  muscles  of  this 

bone  extend  from  its  front  portion,  or  body,  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  chin, 
and  also  to  the  ridges  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  lower  jaw.  Their  action  is 
noticed  in  swallowing. 

The  larynx  (Plates  20  and  21)  is  the  commencement  of  the  respiratory 

passage,  and  serves  as  the  organ  of  the  voice.  It  consists  of  a cartilaginous 

framework  in  separate  pieces,  of  which  the  thyroid  and  cricoid  cartilages  are 
the  only  ones  influencing  the  outward  form.  The  trachea  is  the  top  of  the 
windpipe,  and  in  the  neck  is  covered  by  the  sterno-hyoid  and  sterno-thyroid 
muscles  (Plate  15,  Figs.  i and  2). 

The  sterno-byoid  muscles  are  two  thin  fleshy  bands  which  arise  from  the 
joints  of  the  clavicles  with  the  top  of  the  sternum  and  pass  beneath  the  skin 
to  the  body  of  the  hyoid  bone.  The  sterno-thyroid  muscles  arise  from  the  top 
of  the  sternum  and  ascend  to  the  sides  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  (Plate  15, 
Figs.  1 and  2). 

Action  of  the  sterno-hyoid  and  sterno-thyrvid  muscles. — The  action  of  these 
muscles  is  noticeable  in  forced  inspiration. 

Upon  each  side  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  there  is  a lobulated  body,  the 
thyroid  glands  (Plate  21,  Fig.  1).  They  are  connected  by  a band  of  similar 
substance  (the  isthmus)  which  crosses  in  front  of  the  windpipe  below  the 
cricoid  cartilage,  and  ordinarily  do  not  affect  the  shape  of  the  neck,  but  when 
enlarged,  as  in  goitre,  they  do  so  considerably.  They  are  naturally  larger  in 
the  female  than  in  the  male,  and  consequently  a woman’s  neck  appears  fuller 
and  rounder  than  a man’s. 

The  digastric  muscles  (Plate  16,  Fig.  2)  consist  of  two  fleshy  portions 
united  by  an  intermediate  tendon  which  pierces  the  tendon  of  the  stylo-liyoid 
muscle  and  is  attached  to  the  hyoid  bone  by  a loop  of  the  deep  fascia.  The 


45 


Analomv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


posterior  portion  arises  from  the  temporal  bone  back  of  the  mastoid  process, 
and  the  anterior  portion  is  attached  to  the  under  part  of  the  chin. 

Action  of  the  digastric  muscles. — The  anterior  and  posterior  portions  of 
the  two  digastric  muscles  always  act  together,  but  the  effect  of  their  action 
depends  upon  which  two  of  the  three  points  of  attachment  are  fixed.  If  the 
jaw  and  skull  are  both  fixed,  the  muscles  raise  the  hyoid  bone,  as  in  swallow- 
ing. If  the  skull  and  hyoid  bone  are  fixed,  the  low'er  jaw'  is  depressed,  as  in 
yawning.  If  the  chin  is  supported  so  that  the  jaw  and  hyoid  bone  are  fixed, 
the  digastric  muscles  can  aid  in  drawing  the  skull  backward. 

The  omo-byoid  muscle  (Plate  15,  Fig.  2)  is  an  interesting  little  muscle  and 
like  the  digastric  muscle  consists  of  two  portions.  The  inner  portion  arises  from 
the  hyoid  bone  and  descends  vertically  beneath  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid 
muscle  (Plate  1^,  Fig.  2).  The  outer  portion  is  attached  to  the  root  of  the 
coracoid  process  of  the  scapula  and  ascends  obliquely.  The  two  portions 
are  connected  by  an  intermediate  tendon,  which  is  itself  connected  by  a band 
of  the  deep  cervical  fascia  to  the  clavicle  and  the  first  rib. 

Action  of  the  omo-hyoid  muscle. — This  muscle  serves,  when  acting  in  con- 
junction with  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  neck,  to  steady  the  hyoid  bone 
— as  in  the  effort  attending  the  free  use  of  the  larynx  for  the  high  notes  in  singing. 
Owing  to  the  connection  of  the  middle  tendon  of  the  muscle  with  the  clavicle, 
the  contraction  of  the  outer  portion,  which  only  occurs  during  inspiration,  offers 
resistance  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  apex  of  the  pleura  and 
the  great  veins  which  are  immediately  beneath  it.  In  violent  efforts  this  is  of 
great  importance,  as,  in  a measure,  it  regulates  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  heart, 
because  the  dilatation  of  the  veins  at  the  root  of  the  neck  is  coincident  with  the 
dilatation  of  the  thorax.  This  action  of  the  omo-hyoid  muscle  produces  a 
noticeable  elevation  on  the  surface  above  the  collar  bone,  in  the  interx'al 
between  the  attachments  of  the  trapezius  and  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscles 
t Plate  42).  It  is  wonderfully  shown  in  the  famous  statue  of  the  “Fighting 
Gladiator,”  proving  the  close  attention  to  nature  on  the  part  of  the  sculptor. 

I'he  skin  over  the  front  of  the  neck  is  thin,  delicate  and  very  elastic,  and 
is  readily  raised  in  folds.  The  amount  of  fat  in  the  sub-cutaneous  tissues 

46 


/Inainmy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

varies  in  different  localities,  but  it  is  apt  to  become  diffused  above  the  hyoid 
bone,  wliere  in  middle  life  it  forms  the  redundancy  called  double  chin.  In 
marked  contrast  to  the  skin  in  front  is  that  over  the  nape  of  the  neck,  where 
it  is  very  dense  and  adherent  to  the  sheaths  of  the  muscles  beneath,  so  that 
when  the  head  is  turned  backward  the  skin  is  thrown  into  parallel  transverse 
folds  (Plate  22). 

In  close  connection  with  the  skin  in  front  and  at  the  sides  of  the  neck 
is  a thin  layer  of  muscle  tissue  called  tlie  platvsma  (Plate  16,  Fig.  ^).  This 
cutaneous  muscle  arises  from  the  skin  over  the  chin,  the  lower  jaw  and  the 
cheek  (page  ^8),  and  descends  over  the  side  of  the  neck  to  be  inserted  below 
the  clavicle  into  the  sub-cutaneous  tissue  over  the  pectoralis  major  and  deltoid 
muscles. 

Action  of  the  flalysnia  muscle. — The  action  of  this  muscle,  owing  to  its 
interlacing  with  the  depressor  muscle  of  the  lower  lip  (page  37),  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  expressions  of  horror  and  extreme  surprise  (Plate  17, 
Figs.  ^ and 

Within  the  meshes  of  the  plalysma  muscle  the  external  jugular  vein  appears 
when  it  holds  its  usual  course  in  a line  from  the  angle  of  the  jaw  to  the  middle 
of  the  clavicle.  The  blue  outline  of  this  vein  is  almost  always  perceptible  in  life, 
through  the  skin  and  it  is  especially  pronounced  during  the  acts  of  declaiming, 
singing,  and  coughing ; also  when  the  breath  is  held  and  any  great  effort  is  made, 
the  external  jugular  veins,  as  well  as  those  of  the  forehead,  become  swollen.  In 
rage  and  strong  passionate  excitement,  when  the  muscles  of  the  neck  are  in 
violent  action,  the  superficial  veins  become  distended  with  blood  and  are  notice- 
able on  the  surface. 

The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle  (Plate  15,  Figs.  1 and  2,  and  Plate  20) 
receives  its  name  from  its  attachments  to  the  mastoid  process  of,  the  temporal 
bone  above  and  to  the  sternum  and  clavicle  below.  It  is  the  great  muscular 
landmark  at  the  side  of  the  neck.  It  arises  by  a thick  round  tendon  from  the 
top  of  the  sternum,  and  by  a broad  flat  tendon  from  the  adjacent  part  of  the 
clavicle.  There  is  a variable  interval  between  these  origins ; the  fibres  from 
both  of  them  commingle  about  the  middle  of  the  neck  where  the  muscle  is 
especially  strong.  Toward  the  insertion  it  flattens  out  and  is  attached  to  the 


47 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

mastoid  process  and  contiguous  part  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  the  outer  part 
of  the  upper  curved  line  of  the  occipital  bone.  Close  examination  reveals  that 
the  sternal  fibres  overlap  the  clavicular. 

zAction  of  the  sterno-deido-mastoid  muscles. — The  peculiarities  of  the  dis- 
position of  the  fibres  and  their  insertions  explain  the  different  actions  of  which 
these  muscles  are  capable.  Ordinarily  the  united  action  of  the  two  sterno- 
deido-mastoid  muscles  maintains  the  head  in  the  erect  position,  with  the  face 
directed  forward,  but  if  the  action  of  the  sternal  fibres  is  greatest,  the  head  will 
be  tilted  backward,  with  the  face  upward  (Plate  22),  while  if  the  action  of  the 
clavicular  fibres  predominates  the  head  will  be  bowed  forward.  The  action 
of  the  clavicular  fibres  is  marked  in  raising  the  head  when  the  body  is  in  a 
recumbent  position,  while  the  actions  of  both  portions  may  be  demonstrated 
by  resisted  effort.  The  independent  action  of  either  one  of  these  muscles 
draws  the  head  obliquely  to  the  same  side  while  the  face  is  turned  toward 
the  opposite  shoulder  (Plates  22  and  23.)  When  the  head  is  fixed  the  sterno- 
mastoid  muscles  elevate  the  sternum  in  forced  inspiration. 

There  are  many  small  muscles  in  relation  to  the  bones  composing  the 
skeleton  of  the  neck  which  serve  to  move  the  several  vertebras  upon  each 
other,  and  aid  the  movements  of  the  skull  upon  the  top  of  the  vertebral  column. 
Those  requiring  consideration  in  this  relation  are  the  longus  colli  muscles 
which  serve  to  bend  the  cervical  vertebrae  forward,  and  the  scalene  muscles, 
which  either  raise  the  thorax,  as  in  deep  inspiration,  or,  being  fixed  below', 
they  can  bend  the  cervical  vertebrcE  forward,  as  in  rising  from  the  recumbent 
position.  They  are  shown  in  Plates  27  and  35, 

The  deeper  muscles  at  the  back  of  the  neck  are  the  complexus  (Plate  36), 
the  splenioLis  (Plate  36),  the  trachelo-mastoid  (Plate  37),  and  the  upper  portion 
of  the  trapezius  (Plate  35)  on  either  side.  They  are  described  with  the  muscles 
of  the  back  of  the  trunk,  page  6^. 

The  surface  forms  of  the  neck,  caused  by  the  muscles  and  varying  with 
their  action,  are  always  more  marked  when  there  is  an  absence  of  fat  in  the 
subcutaneous  fascia  of  this  region.  (Plates  23  and  107.) 


48 


PLATE  19. 


Diagram  of  the  skeleton  of  the  neck  {from  the  right  side). 


T.  The  mastoid  process. 

2.  The  spine  of  the  first  cervical  vertebra. 

3.  The  spine  of  the  second  cervical  vertebra.  | 

4.  The  spine  of  the  third  cervical  vertebra.  : 

5.  The  spine  of  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra,  j 

6.  The  spine  of  the  fifth  cervical  vertebra.  | 

7.  The  spine  of  the  sixth  cervical  vertebra.  | 

8.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

9.  The  spine  of  the  first  thoracic  vertebra. 

10.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

11.  The  spine  of  the  second  thoracic  vertebra. 

12.  The  glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula. 

13.  The  dorsum  of  the  scapula.  ' 1 


14.  The  hyoid  bone. 

15.  The  pomum  Adami  (Adam’s  apple). 

16.  The  thyroid  cartilage. 

17.  The  cricoid  cartilage. 

18.  The  trachea. 

IQ.  The  position  of  the  oesophagus. 

20.  The  position  of  the  thyroid  muscles. 

21.  The  clavicle. 

22.  The  manubrium. 

23.  The  coracoid  process. 

24.  The  joint  between  the  manubrium  and 

the  gladiolus. 

25.  The  gladiolus  of  the  sternum. 


PLATE  19 


PLATE  20. 


Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the 

1.  The  parotid  gland. 

2.  The  spine  of  the  second  cervical  vertebra. 

3.  The  spine  of  the  third  cervical  vertebra. 

4.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

5.  The  spine  of  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra. 

C.  The  spine  of  the  fifth  cervical  vertebra. 

7.  The  spine  of  the  sixth  cervical  vertebra. 

8.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

Q.  The  complexus  muscle. 

10.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

11.  The  outer  tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 

12.  The  masseter  muscle. 

13.  The  duct  of  the  parotid  gland.  | 

14.  The  buccinator  muscle.  I 


neck  {from  the  right  side). 

15.  The  masseter  muscle. 

16.  The  hyoid  bone. 

17.  The  thyroid  cartilage, 

18.  The  sterno-mastoid  muscle, 
ig.  The  cricoid  cartilage. 

20.  The  sternal  portion  of  the  sterno-mastoid 

muscle. 

21.  The  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle. 

22.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

23.  The  manubrium  of  the  sternum. 

24.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

25.  The  joint  between  the  manubrium  and 

gladiolus  of  the  sternum. 

26.  The  pectoralis  minor  muscle. 


PLATE  20 


PI.ATE  21. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram  of  the  deeper  structures  of  the 
neck. 

1.  The  styloid  process. 

2.  The  spine  of  the  Atlas  vertebra. 

3.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  digastric 

muscle. 

4.  The  spine  of  the  second  cervical  vertebra. 

5.  The  hyoid  bone. 

6.  The  skin  at  the  nape  of  the  neck. 

7.  The  oesophagus. 

8.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

Q.  The  spine  of  the  sixth  cervical  vertebra. 

10.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

11.  The  first  rib. 

12.  The  second  rib. 

13.  The  upper  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

14.  The  lower  lateral  nasal  cartilage. 

15.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  digastric 

muscle. 

16.  The  thyroid  cartilage. 

17.  The  Adam’s  apple  (pomum  Adami). 

18.  The  crico-thyroid  muscle. 

19.  The  cricoid  cartilage. 

20.  The  sterno-thyroid  muscle. 

21.  The  thyroid  body. 

22.  The  clavicle. 

23.  The  manubrium  of  the  sternum. 


N.  B. — The  section  (in  Fig.  2)  is  not 
represented. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  a vertical  section  of 
the  head,  face  and  neck. 

1.  The  skull. 

2.  The  dura  mater. 

3.  The  cortical  surface  of  the  cerebrum. 

4.  The  medulla  oblongata. 

5.  The  cerebellum. 

6.  The  uvula  of  the  soft  palate. 

7.  The  pharynx. 

8.  The  arytenoid  cartilage. 

9.  The  thyro-artenoid  muscle. 

10.  The  ligamentum  nuch$. 

1 1.  The  spinal  cord. 

12.  The  spine  of  the  vertebra  prominens. 

13.  The  frontal  sinus. 

14.  The  superior  nasal  meatus. 

15.  The  middle  nasal  meatus. 

16.  The  inferior  nasal  meatus. 

17.  The  hard  palate. 

18.  The  upper  incisor  teeth. 

19.  The  lower  incisor  teeth. 

20.  The  tongue. 

21.  Section  through  the  lower  jaw. 

22.  The  genio-hyoid  muscle. 

23.  The  hyoid  bone. 

24.  The  thyroid  cartilage. 

25.  The  crico-thyroid  muscle. 

26.  The  cricoid  cartilage. 

27.  The  trachea. 

28.  The  oesophagus. 

through  the  brain,  the  outer  surface  of  which  is 


PLATE  21 


I 


PLATE  22. 


Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  the  head  and  shoulders 
of  a woman  with  the  arms  raised  to 
show  the  axillary  folds. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  head  and  shoulders 
of  a woman  with  the  arms  depressed 
to  show  the  root  of  the  neck. 


Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  a girl's  head  bent  back- 
ward to  show  the  sterno-mastoid  mus- 
cle {from  the  left  side). 

Fig.  4.  Photograph  of  a girl's  head  bent  back- 
ward to  show  the  neck  ( from  the 
front). 


PLATE  22 


Fig.  I Fig,  2 


i tat 


/ 9M* 


■ ' 


y^nutomv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  TRUNK. 

The  trnnk  consists  of  the  thorax,  the  abdomen,  and  the  pelvis,  connected 
by  the  spinal  column. 

The  spinal  column  or  backbone  (Plates  24  and  2o)  is  composed  of  thirty- 
three  vertebiTu  which  are  irregular  bones,  superimposed  upon  one  another. 

The  upper  twenty-four  vertebrm  are  separated,  during  life,  by  disks  of  pibro- 
cartilage  and  are  called  the  true  or  movable  vertebrce,  in  distinction  to  the  lower 
nine  which  are  the  false  or  fixed  vertebrce  because  they  are  consolidated  into  the 
sacrum  and  coccyx  (page  90).  The  intervertebral  fibro-cartitages  fulfill  the  double 
object  of  contributing  elasticity,  and,  acting  as  buffers,  to  jirevent  shocks  to  the 
spinal  cord. 

The  entire  column  examined  from  the  front  (Plate  2o)  and  from  behind 
(Plate  3;i)  shows  that  the  seven  vertebno?  composing  the  skeleton  of  the  neck 
gradually  diminish  in  widtli  to  the  topmost  of  the  twelve  vertebrce  of  the  thorax, 
which  are  broader  above  than  below,  and  that  the  five  vertebrce  of  the  loins 
successively  widen  and  become  thicker  as  they  approach  the  sacrum.  Viewed 
from  the  side  (Plate  24)  the  column  presents  certain  normal  curves  which  con- 
tribute toward  its  Ilexibility.  In  the  neck,  the  component  vertebrce  curve  for- 
ward; in  the  thorax,  backward;  in  the  loins,  forward,  and  in  the  sacrum  and 
coccyx,  backward.  The  average  length  of  tiie  spinal  column  in  the  well-formed 
adult  male  is  about  twenty-seven  and  three-quarter  inches,  and  in  the  female 
about  twenty-seven  inches.  Of  this,  five  and  one-half  inches  are  made  up  of 
the  cartilaginous  disks  between  the  vertebrce. 

When  the  skeleton  of  the  trunk  is  examined  from  the  back  (Plate  33)  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  haunch  bones  project  considerably  beyond  the  sacrum  so 
that  the  hollow  on  each  side  of  the  vertebral  spine  is  very  deep  in  this  local- 
ity. Above  the  loins  in  the  thoracic  region  the  hollows  become  shallower  and 
broader  because  of  the  articulation  of  the  ribs  to  the  vertebrce.  The  hollows 
are  filled  by  the  erector  spince  mass  of  muscles  on  each  side  (Plate  37),  When 
these  muscles  are  in  powerful  contraction,  as  when  a heavy  weight  is  being 


49 


Anatomv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

supported  from  above,  they  bulge  outwardly,  elevating  the  tendinous  portions 
of  the  more  superficial  muscles,  and  the  spines  of  the  column  are  then  in  a 
median  furrow.  This  is  marked  when  the  body  is  bent  backward  (Plate  23). 
On  the  contrary,  when  the  body  is  bent  forward,  the  median  furrow  disappears 
and  the  vertebral  spines  become  more  or  less  prominent. 

The  movements  of  the  spinal  column  should  be  carefully  observed  as  they 
are  of  great  interest  and  importance.  The  normal  curves,  already  mentioned,  are 
forward  in  the  neck,  backward  in  the  thorax,  forward  in  the  loins  and  backward 
in  the  pelvis.  Movements  forward  are  called  tlexions ; backward,  extensions. 
They  are  most  free  in  the  neck  and  in  the  loins.  In  the  thoracic  portion  of  the 
spine  the  movements  are  limited  by  the  cage-like  construction  of  the  thorax.  The 
ribs  in  front  and  the  vertebral  spines  behind  offer  mechanical  interference.  The 
normal  curves  are  modified  when  the  body  is  flexed  or  extended  to  its  greatest 
limit,  but  they  are  never  entirely  obliterated  (Plate  23). 

The  spinal  column  is  also  capable  of  being  moved  laterally.  In  the  neck  this 
is  very  free  (Plate  22).  In  the  thoracic  and  lumbar  portions  it  is  very  slight 
(Plate  23)  unless  the  pelvis  is  shifted  so  as  to  cause  an  inclination  of  tlie 
sacrum,  which  is  the  base  of  the  column. 

All  the  vertebrm  consist  of  anterior  portions,  the  bodies,  which,  with  the  disks 
of  cartilages,  form  a flexible  support  for  the  head  and  trunk,  and  of  posterior  por- 
tions, the  arches,  wirich,  with  their  ligaments,  form  the  protective  canal  wiiich 
encloses  the  spinal  cord  (Plate  21).  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  dwell  upon 
the  various  vertebrce  except  as  to  those  features  of  them  wiiich  contribute  to  the 
mechanical  construction  of  the  trunk.  The  vertebrm  of  the  neck  (cervical)  are 
showm  in  Plates  11  and  38  and  described  on  page  4^. 


50 


PLATE  23. 


Fig.  J.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  with 
the  feet  together  and  the  trunk  turned 
forcibly  to  the  left. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  with 
the  feet  in  same  position  as  Fig.  t 
and  the  trunk  turned  forcibly  to  the 
right. 


Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  with 
the  body  bent  backward  and  the  arms 
extended,  showing  the  curvature  at 
the  loins  and  the  folds  of  the  arm-pit, 
on  the  right  side. 

Fig.  4.  Photograph  of  a man  standing  and 
stooping  forward  with  the  arms  ex- 
tended to  show  the  curvature  of  the 
back. 


•»  ■ 


10 


* 

tl 


J 


PLATE  24. 


Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  head, 
neck  and  trunk  {right  side). 

1.  The  parietal  hone. 

2.  The  temporal  bone. 

3.  The  occipital  bone. 

4.  The  mastoid  process. 

5.  The  second  cervical  vertebra. 

6.  The  fourth  cervical  vertebra. 

7.  The  fifth  cervical  vertebra. 

8.  The  sixth  cervical  vertebra, 
g.  The  vertebra  prominens. 

10.  The  first  thoracic  vertebra. 

1 1.  The  first  rib. 

12.  The  glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula. 

13.  The  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula. 

14.  The  eighth  rib. 

1 5.  The  ninth  rib. 

16.  The  tenth  rib. 

17.  The  eleventh  rib. 

18.  The  second  lumbar  vertebra, 
ig.  The  crest  of  the  ilium. 

20.  The  coccyx. 

21.  The  sciatic  notch. 

22.  The  tip  of  the  coccyx. 

23.  The  ischium. 

24.  The  frontal  hone. 

25.  The  superciliary  ridge. 

26.  The  malar  bone. 

27.  The  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

28.  The  clavicle. 

2g.  The  manubrium  of  the  sternum. 

30.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

31.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

32.  The  third  rib. 

33.  The  fourth  rib. 

34.  The  fifth  rib. 

35.  The  sixth  rib. 

36.  The  promontory  of  the  sacrum. 

37.  The  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium. 

38.  The  acetabulum. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  head, 
face,  neck  and  trunk  {right  side). 

1.  The  galea  capitis. 

2.  The  temporal  muscle. 

3.  The  occipital  muscle. 

4.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

5.  The  splenius  muscle. 

6.  The  complexus  muscle. 

7.  The  omo-hyoid  muscle. 

8.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

g.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  deltoid  mus- 
cle. 

10.  The  infra-spinatus  muscle, 

11.  The  teres  minor  muscle. 

12.  The  teres  major  muscle. 

13.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

14.  The  triceps  muscle. 

15.  The  lumbar  fascia. 

16.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

17.  The  frontal  muscle. 

18.  The  pyramidal  muscle. 

ig.  The  orbicularis  palpebrarum  muscle. 

20.  The  compressor  naris  muscle. 

21.  The  zygomatic  muscle. 

22.  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle. 

23.  The  masseter  muscle. 

24.  The  levator  menti  muscle. 

25.  The  depressor  anguli  oris  muscle. 

26.  The  digastric  muscle. 

27.  The  omo-hyoid  muscle. 

28.  The  sterno-thyroid  muscle. 

2g.  The  sternal  portion  of  the  sterno-cleido- 
mastoid  muscle. 

30.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  sterno- 

cleido-mastoid  muscle. 

31.  The  external  portion  of  the  deltoid  mus- 

cle. 

32.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  deltoid  mus- 

cle. 

33.  The  pectoralis  major  muscle. 

34.  The  insertion  of  the  deltoid  muscle. 

35.  The  biceps  muscle. 

36.  The  external  oblique  muscle. 

' 37.  The  umbilicus. 

i 38.  The  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna. 

1 39.  Poupart’s  ligament. 


PLATE  24 


fig.  [. 


I 


I 


! 

i 

i 


I 


2. . 


PLATE  26. 


Photogfraph  of  the  skeleton  of  an  European  male^  aged  33  years  {from  the  front). 


1.  The  frontal  bone. 

2.  The  right  superciliary  ridge. 

3.  The  right  supra-orbital  arch. 

4.  The  nasal  bones. 

5.  The  right  temporal  bone. 

0.  The  right  malar  bone. 

7.  The  suture  between  the  two  superior  max- 

illary bones. 

8,  The  mastoid  process  of  the  right  temporal 

bone. 

Q.  The  angle  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone. 

10.  The  chin. 

11.  The  body  of  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra. 

12.  The  right  first  rib. 

13.  The  right  clavicle. 

14.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  right  scapula. 

15.  The  glenoid  process  of  the  right  scapula. 
iC.  The  cartilage  of  the  right  second  rib. 

17.  The  gladiolus  of  the  sternum. 

18.  The  right  fourth  rib. 

19.  The  cartilage  of  the  right  fifth  rib. 

20.  The  ensiform  cartilage. 

21 . The  right  sixth  rib. 

22.  The  right  seventh  rib. 

23.  The  second  lumbar  vertebra. 

24.  The  fourth  lumbar  vertebra. 

25.  The  promontory  of  the  sacrum. 

26.  Theanterior  superior  spine  of  the  right  ilium. 

27.  Theanterior  inferior  spineof  the  right  ilium. 

28.  The  right  acetabulum. 


29.  The  symphysis  pubis. 

30.  The  right  ischium. 

31.  The  external  angular  process  of  the  left 

orbit. 

32.  The  left  temporal  bone. 

33.  The  vomer. 

34.  The  left  malar  bone. 

35.  The  mastoid  process  of  the  left  temporal 

bone. 

36.  The  angle  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone. 

37.  The  sixth  cervical  vertebra. 

38.  The  left  first  rib. 

39.  The  left  clavicle. 

40.  The  manubrium  of  the  sternum. 

41.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  left  scapula. 

42.  The  body  of  the  left  scapula. 

43.  The  left  third  rib. 

44.  The  left  fourth  rib. 

45.  The  cartilage  of  the  left  fifth  rib. 

46.  The  left  sixth  rib. 

47.  The  left  twelfth  rib. 

48.  The  left  seventh  rib. 

49.  The  third  lumbar  vertebra. 

50.  The  left  ilium. 

51.  The  sacrum. 

52.  The  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  left 

ilium. 

53.  The  coccyx. 

54.  1 he  left  ischium. 


PLATE  25 


30 


54 


/ 


\ 


■il. 


if' 


'1 


i' 


\ 


/ 


■;ar. 


I 


PLATE  26. 


Diagram  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  front  of  the  Torso. 


1.  The  upper  part  of  the  right  omo-hyoid 

muscle. 

2.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  right  sterno- 

mastoid  muscle, 

3.  The  right  sterno-thyroid  muscle, 

4.  The  right  trapezius  muscle, 

5.  The  lower  portion  of  the  right  omo-hyoid 

muscle. 

C.  The  sternal  end  of  the  right  sterno- 
mastoid  muscle. 

7.  The  right  clavicle. 

8.  The  position  of  the  coracoid  process  of 

the  right  scapula. 

9.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  pectoralis 

major  muscle. 

10.  The  right  deltoid  muscle. 

1 1.  The  insertion  of  the  right  pectoralis  major 

muscle. 

12.  The  right  pectoralis  major  muscle.  ] 

13.  The  right  biceps  muscle.  j 

14.  The  insertion  of  the  right  deltoid  muscle. 

15.  The  right  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

lO.  riie  right  external  oblique  muscle  of  the 
abdomen. 

17.  The  linea  alba.  1 

18.  The  right  linea  semi-lunaris.- 

19.  I'he  umbilicus. 

20.  The  position  of  the  anterior  spine  of  the 

right  ilium. 

21.  The  right  tensor  vagime  femoris  muscle. 

22.  The  right  ligament  of  Poupart.  | 

23.  The  sheath  of  the  pyramidal  muscles  of 

the  abdomen.  [ 

24.  The  position  of  the  head  of  the  right 

femur.  j 

25.  The  upper  portion  of  the  right  rectus  1 

femoris  muscle. 

26.  The  position  of  the  greater  trochanter  of 

the  right  femur. 

27.  The  position  of  the  right  ischium. 

28.  The  position  of  the  lesser  trochanter  of 

the  right  femur.  1 

29.  The  right  sartorius  muscle.  1 


30.  The  fascia  lata. 

31.  The  right  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

32.  The  position  of  the  shaft  of  the  right 

femur. 

33.  The  sternal  portion  of  the  left  sterno 

mastoid  muscle. 

34.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  left  sterno 

mastoid  muscle. 

35.  The  left  sterno-thyroid  muscle. 

36.  The  left  trapezius  muscle. 

37.  The  sternal  end  of  the  left  sterno-mastoid 

muscle. 

38.  The  left  clavicle. 

39.  The  position  of  the  coracoid  process  of 

the  left  scapula. 

40.  The  position  of  the  head  of  the  left 

humerus. 

41.  The  left  deltoid  muscle. 

42.  The  insertion  of  the  left  pectoralis  major 

muscle. 

43.  The  insertion  of  the  left  deltoid  muscle. 

44.  The  left  biceps  muscle. 

45.  The  left  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

46.  The  left  upper  linea  transversa. 

47.  The  left  middle  linea  transveisa. 

48.  The  left  external  oblique  muscle  of  the 

abdomen. 

49.  The  left  lower  linea  transversa. 

50.  The  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  left 

ilium. 

51.  The  left  ligament  of  Poupart. 

52.  The  left  tensor  vagina'  femoris  muscle. 

53.  The  left  spermatic  cord. 

54.  The  position  of  the  symphisis  pubis. 

55.  The  position  of  the  great  trochanter  of 

the  left  femur. 

56.  The  position  of  the  left  ischium. 

57.  The  left  adductor  longus  muscle. 

58.  The  left  sartorius  muscle. 

59.  The  fascia  lata. 

Co.  The  left  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

61 . The  position  of  the  shaft  of  the  left  femur. 


PLATE  26 


\ 


.# 


* > • 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


THE  THORAX. 

The  skeleton  of  the  thorax  is  composed  of  the  sternum,  the  ribs  and 
costal  cartilages,  and  the  thoracic  vertebra?,  so  arranged  as  to  form  a 
conical  movable  framework,  which  gives  attachment  to  the  muscles 
of  respiration  and  affords  protection  to  the  heart  and  lungs  (Plate  31,  Fig.  i). 

The  sternum,  or  breast-bone  (Plate  38,  Figs,  lo  and  1 1),  consists  of  three  flat 
portions  which,  taken  together,  form  a long,  narrow,  bony  mass,  shaped  some- 
what like  an  old  Roman  sword.  The  upper  portion  {manubrium)  resembles  the 
handle,  the  central  portion  {gladiolus)  is  blade-like,  and  the  lower  pointed  pro- 
cess, usually  cartilaginous,  is  the  point  {enciform  process).  The  point  is  very 
variable  in  form  and  frequently  bent  to  one  or  other  side.  The  sternum  in 
the  adult  male  usually  measures  eight  inches  and  in  the  female  seven  inches. 
The  outer  surface  is  slightly  convex  and  the' inner  concave.  Looked  at  from  the 
side  (Plate  24,  Fig.  i),  the  outer  surface  of  the  different  portions  will  be  seen 
to  occupy  different  planes,  so  that  there  is  always  a slight  bend  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  upper  and  middle  pieces.  The  latter  joint  presents  a ridge  which 
can  always  be  felt,  and  is  therefore  a landmark.  It  corresponds  to  the  attach- 
ment of  the  cartilages  of  the  two  second  ribs-  (Plate  2-5).  The  median  line 
of  the  sternum  is  not  continuous  with  the  median  line  of  the  abdomen 
(page  6o),  but  inclines  rather  to  the  right. 

The  ribs  are  twelve  pairs  of  flattened  bony  hoops  which  are  attached  to 
the  spinal  column  between  the  neck  and  the  loins,  so  arranged  that  they  pro- 
ject anteriorly  and  describe  a series  of  arches  which  increase  in  length  to  the 
seventh,  and  in  obliquity  to  the  ninth,  from  above  downward.  The  obliquity 
of  the  ribs  is  so  great  that  the  sternal  end  of  any  rib  is  on  a level  with  the 
vertebral  end  of  a rib  considerably  below  it  in  numerical  order  (Plate  24, 
Fig.  i).  Thus  the  sternal  end  of  the  first  rib  corresponds  to  the  vertebral  end 
of  the  fourth  rib ; that  of  the  fifth  to  the  ninth ; and  that  of  the  ninth  to  the 
eleventh. 


51 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  seven  upper  ribs  have  separate  cartilaginous  prolongations  which  con- 
nect them  with  the  sternum  and  are  called  trne  or  sternal  ribs,  whereas  the 
lower  five  are  false  or  asternal  ribs,  because  they  are  not  joined  directly  with 
the  sternum.  The  eighth,  ninth  and  tenth  ribs  have  cartilaginous  prolonga- 
tions which  unite  and  turn  upward  to  join  the  cartilage  of  the  seventh  rib 
(Plate  25),  so  that  they  are  brought  indirectly  in  connection  with  the  ster- 
nuni.  The  eleventh  and  twelfth  are  without  cartilages  and  terminate  in  free 
ends  in  the  muscular  walls  of  the  abdomen,  and  hence  are  called  foaling  ribs. 

The  vertebral  end  of  a rib  is  called  its  bead.  The  narrow  portion  beyond 
the  head  is  called  the  neck.  The  shaft  or  body  of  each  rib  from  the  seventh 
to  the  tenth  (Plate  33)  at  a short  distance  from  its  neck  suddenly  bends 
forward  and  changes  the  direction  of  its  curve.  This  is  indicated  upon  its 
outer  surface  by  an  oblique  ridge  called  the  angle,  which  upon  each  suc- 
cessive rib  downward  is  situated  further  outward.  The  sternal  portions  of 
the  ribs  are  broader  and  thicker  than  the  vertebral  ends.  The  sternal  ends 
are  cupped  for  the  reception  of  the  cartilages  which  connect  them'  with  the 
sternum. 

Each  rib  is  peculiarly  modified  in  conformation  to  its  position  in  the  series, 
and  from  the  first  to  the  last  they  are  so  remarkably  adapted  to  the  move- 
ments of  respiration  that  the  slight  rotation  which  can  take  place  only  at  their 
vertebral  articulation  occasions  not  only  a slight  elevation  of  their  sternal  ends, 
but  an  eversion  of  their  lateral  surfaces,  so  that  by  their  united  action  the 
thoracic  cavity  is  enlarged  in  every  direction.  The  costal  cartilages  contribute 
greatly  to  the  elasticity  of  the  thorax. 

The  method  of  the  articulation  of  the  ribs  with  the  thoracic  vertebra? 
behind  and  with  the  sternum  through  their  cartilages  in  front,  is  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  pieces  of  mechanism  in  nature,  which  not  only  permits  the 
unceasing  momentary  alterations  in  the  capacity  of  the  thoracic  cavity  during 
respiration,  but  also  fulfils  the  function  of  support  and  protection. 

The  intercostal  spaces  in  relation  to  the  sternum  are  wider  above  than 
below.  They  all  vary  with  the  expansion  of  the  chest  in  respiration,  and 
they  can  be  increased  upon  one  side  when  the  body  is  bent  over  to  the 


52 


/fiialomv  in  Us  Relation  to  Art. 

opposite  side.  The  skeleton  of  the  human  thorax  is  somewhat  flattened  in 
front  and  behind,  so  that  it  is  broader  than  it  is  deep,  and  consequently  the 
supine  position  is  naturally  an  easy  one  to  man. 

The  intercostal  spaces  are  filled  by  the  intercostal  muscles  (Plate  32),  of 
which  there  are  two  separate  layers,  an  internal  and  an  external,  the  short 
fleshy  fibres  of  which  cross  one  another.  The  external  intercostal  muscles 
commence  at  the  back  and  pass  obliquely  from  the  outer  border  of  the  rib 
above  to  the  top  of  the  rib  below  throughout  the  series,  and  extend  as  far 
forward  as  the  costal  cartilages.  The  internal  intercostal  muscles  commence 
at  the  sternum  and  pass  obliquely  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  external 
muscles,  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  rib  above  to  the  upper  border  of  the  rib 
below,  as  far  backward  as  the  angles  of  the  ribs. 

diction  of  the  intercostal  muscles. — These  muscles  are  chiefly  in  action  in 
the  movements  of  the  ribs  in  ordinary  tranquil  breathing. 

The  thoracic  vertehnv  have  their  bodies  thicker  in  front  than  behind, 
and  the  intercostal  cartilaginous  disks  in  this  region  are  also  similarly  pro- 
portioned, so  that  the  series  permit  the  natural  convex  curvature  backward. 
They  are  especially  peculiar  for  their  articulation  with  the  ribs  and  for  the 
length  and  obliquity  of  their  spinous  processes.  There  is  much  variability  in 
the  form  of  the  thorax  at  all  periods  of  life,  and  very  commonly  there  is  a want 
of  symmetry  in  the  two  sides,  the  circumference  of  the  right  being  greater 
than  the  left  and  probably  due  to  the  more  frequent  use  of  the  right  arm. 
In  early  childhood  the  thorax  is  relatively  smaller  than  in  the  adult.  The 
ribs  are  flatter  and  less  hooped,  and  up  to  the  end  of  the  third  year  breath- 
ing is  more  abdominal  than  thoracic,  while  after  that  age  in  boys,  and  in 
men,  too,  it  is  effected  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  attached  to  the  lower 
seven  ribs  as  well  as  the  diaphragm  (page  ^8).  In  adult  females  the  upper 
portion  of  the  thorax  is  less  compressed  from  before  backward,  and  the 
upper  ribs  are  naturally  brought  more  into  play,  even  when  not  influenced 
by  artificial  pressure  from  the  use  of  stays  or  corsets,  so  that  in  women 
breathing  is  chiefly  thoracic.  Comparison  of  the  thorax  in  man  and  in  woman 
(Plates  2 and  4)  shows  that  it  is  more  slightly  constructed  and  relatively  shorter 
and  more  rounded  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former. 


53 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  muscles  of  the  thorax  are  the  pedoralis  major  and  minor  in  front,  the 
serratus  magnus  at  the  side,  and  the  serrati  postici  major  and  minor  (page  66) 
at  the  back. 

The  pectoralis  major  muscle  (Plate  27)  is  the  large  triangular  fleshy  mass 
situated  at  the  front  of  the  chest,  consisting  of  two  special  portions,  the  fibres 
of  which  converge  toward  the  shoulder.  The  clavicular  portion  arises  from 
the  front  of  the  inner  half  of  the  clavicle,  and  the  joint  between  that  bone 
and  the  top  of  the  sternum,  and  extends  obliquely  outward,  when  the  arm 
is  at  the  side  of  the  body,  to  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid  muscle  on  the  shaft  of 
the  humerus.  The  sternal  portion  arises  by  tendinous  fibres  from  the  front  of 
the  sternum,  interlacing  with  those  from  the  opposite  muscle,  and  from  the  car- 
tilages of  the  five  or  six  upper  true  ribs.  The  fibres  radiate  toward  their  insertion, 
being  peculiarly  disposed  so  that  the  lower  fibres-pass  obliquely  upward  beneath 
the  upper  fibres  and  their  relative  position  is  reversed,  the  lower  becoming 
the  upper  as  they  terminate  in  a flat  tendon  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  bicipital 
groove  on  the  humerus,  beneath  the  insertion  of  the  clavicular  portion.  The 
anterior  rounded  border  of  the  axilla,  or  arm-pit,  is  formed  by  the  twist  in  the 
sternal  portion  of  the  pectoralis  major  muscle. 

This  muscle  is  remarkable  for  its  tendency  to  separate  into  radial  bundles, 
which  led  Leonardo  da  Vinci  to  mistake  it  for  a series  of  muscles,  as  is  shown 
in  the  careful  drawings  of  it  which  he  left  among  his  anatomical  studies. 

^Action  of  the  pectoralis  major  muscle. — Its  function  is  chiefly  to  draw  the 
arm  forward  and  to  rotate  it  inward  upon  the  chest.  When  the  arm  is  raised 
it  can  draw  it  downward,  or  if  the  fixed  point  is  above  the  two  great 
pectoral  muscles  can  assist  in  raising  the  trunk,  as  in  climbing. 

llie  pectoralis  minor  and  subclavius  muscles  are  beneath  the  pectoralis 
major  (Plate  27).  The  former  is  a triangular  muscle  arising  from  the  sternal 
end  of  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ribs  and  the  aponeurotic  expansion  over  tlie 
subjacent  intercostal  muscles.  It  is  inserted  into  the  coracoid  process  of  the 
scapula. 

Action  of  the  pectoralis  minor  muscle. — The  pectoralis  minor  muscle  serves 
to  draw  forward  and  downward  the  scapula,  thus  depressing  the  shoulder. 


54 


Alutomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  subcldvius  ninscle  is  a rounded  bundle  of  fibres  which  arise  from  tlie 
junction  of  tlie  first  rib  and  its  cartilage,  and  is  inserted  into  the  under  surface 
of  the  clavicle  which  it  serves  to  depress. 

The  skin  over  the  front  of  the  thorax  in  relation  to  the  great  pectoral 
muscles  is  quite  tense  over  the  sternum,  but  at  the  sides  is  very  freely 
movable.  It  is  delicate  and  closely  connected  with  the  superficial  fascia,  in 
which  there  is  always  more  or  less  fat  in  a well-nourished  man  or  woman. 
There  is,  however,  much  variability  in  the  surface  forms  which  are  distinc- 
tive of  the  sexes,  and  which  should  be  attentively  studied  by  the  artist, 
especially  the  sculptor,  who  undertakes  to  represent  this  portion  of  the  trunk, 
because  it  possesses  great  beauty  when  its  conformation  is  commensurate 
with  that  of  the  general  development  of  the  body. 

The  niammaiy  glands  or  breasts  are  situated  in  the  fat  over  the  lower 
borders  of  the  great  pectoral  muscles.  In  man  these  glands  are  not  devel- 
oped, the  nipples,  having  a slight  areola  of  dark  skin  about  them,  indicating 
their  rudimentary  existence.  The  nipples  in  the  adult  male  are  usually 
opposite  the  fourth  intercostal  spaces,  about  four-and-a-half  inches  from  the 
middle  line,  but  their  position  cannot  be  definitely  fixed.  In  men  with  dark 
skins  hairs  grow  over  the  sternum  and  occupy  the  depression  between  the 
pectoral  muscles. 

In  woman  the  breasts  are  always  glandular,  being  developed  according 
to  the  age  and  functional  activity.  They  vary  in  size  and  shape,  and  as  they 
are  closely  connected  with  the  sheaths  of  the  great  pectoral  muscles,  they 
follow  the  movements  of  these  muscles  when  the  arms  are  raised.  The  two 
breasts  are  naturally  separated  from  one  another,  according  to  the  width  of 
the  thorax.  When  fully  formed  they  appear  as  smooth,  firm  globes  rising 
from  the  surface  of  the  chest,  over  the  lower  borders  of  the  great  pectoral 
muscles,  with  the  nipples  directed  forward  and  outward,  so  that  they  point 
away  from  each  other  (Plate  3,  Fig.  i).  The  position  of  the  nipples  of  the 
female  breasts  cannot  hold  any  definite  relation  to  the  chest  wall,  because  of 
the  changes  of  the  glandular  structure  in  different  instances.  There  is  always 
a tinted  area  of  the  skin  about  the  nipple,  which  is  more  marked  in  dark- 
skiimed  women  than  in  fair  ones.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  breasts  are 


55 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art 

movable  and  accommodate  themselves  to  the  position  of  the  body,  being 
somewhat  higher  on  the  chest  in  the  recumbent  position  and  sinking  by  their 
weight  when  the  erect  posture  is  assumed. 

There  is  a great  difference  in  the  breasts  in  the  maiden,  the  matron  and 
in  an  aged  woman.  In  youth  they  are  usually  higher  and  of  such  consist- 
ence that  they  do  not  yield  to  gravity  and  conform  to  the  general  roundness 
of  the  neck  and  shoulders,  while  in  the  matron,  owing  to  the  secreting  func- 
tion of  the  glands,  they  are  enlarged  and  produce  a folding  of  the  skin  below 
them.  In  old  age  they  appear  either  withered  or  loose  and  formless. 

From  these  facts  it  will  be  understood  that  there  is  a marked  contrast 
in  the  surface  form  of  the  chest  in  the  male  and  female.  In  man,  owing  to 
the  non-development  of  the  mammary  glands,  the  lower  borders  of  the  great 
pectoral  muscle  stand  out,  producing  a square  appearance  and  suggesting 
strength  (Plate  1).  in  women  the  presence  of  the  breasts  induces  a round- 
ness which  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  the  anterior  fold  of  the  arm -pit, 
so  that  there  is  a curved  outline,  which  contributes  to  grace  and  beauty  of 
effect  (Plate  3). 

The  serratus  magnns  muscle  (Plate  28,  Figs,  i,  2 and  3)  forms  the  inner 
wall  of  the  axilla  or  arm-pit  and  is  the  fleshy  covering  at  the  side  of  the 
chest.  It  arises  by  nine  digitations  from  the  upper  eight  rihs,  there  being 
two  attached  to  the  second  rib,  which  are  formed  into  upper  and  middle  and 
lower  portions.  The  fibres  from  these  several  portions  pass  to  he  inserted 
upon  the  anterior  surface  of  the  vertebral  border  of  the  scapula.  (Plate  28, 
Fig.  2.) 

Action  of  the  serratus  magnus  muscle. — Its  function  is  to  draw  the  scapula 
forward  around  the  chest  wall,  but  when  the  scapula  is  steady  it  becomes 
a powerful  inspiratory  muscle.  The  serratus  is  one  of  the  most  important 
muscles  for  the  art-student  to  comprehend,  for  it  is  more  or  less  concerned 
in  every  movement  of  the  upper  extremity.  When  in  action,  these  muscles 
can  be  recognized  through  the  skin,  appearing  like  fingers  of  a huge  hand 
upon  the  sides  of  the  chest  wall.  ( Plates  28  and  79.) 


56 


PLATH  27. 


Fig.  J.  Diagram  of  the  thorax  { from  the  front) 
showing  the  greater  and  lesser  pec- 
toral, and  the  subclavius  muscles. 

1 . The  right  first  rib. 

2.  The  right  subclavius  muscle. 

3.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  right  scapula. 

4.  The  head  of  the  right  humerus. 

5.  The  right  second  rib. 

6.  The  bicipital  groove  on  the  right  humerus. 

7.  The  right  pectoralis  minor  muscle. 

8.  The  sternal  end  of  the  right  third  rib. 
g.  The  right  humerus. 

10.  The  sternal  end  of  the  right  fourth  nb. 

11.  The  position  of  the  right  nipple. 

12.  The  right  fifth  rib. 

13.  The  left  levator  anguli  scapula?  muscle. 

14.  The  left  trapezius  muscle. 

15.  The  head  of  the  left  first  rib. 

16.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  left  scapula. 

17.  The  tendon  of  the  left  pectoralis  minor 

muscle. 

18.  The  bicipital  groove  on  the  left  humerus. 

19.  The  clavicular  portion  of  the  left  pector- 

alis major  muscle. 

20.  The  tendon  of  the  pectoralis  major  mus- 

cle. 

21.  The  central  portion  of  the  pectoralis 

major  muscle. 

22.  The  lower  portion  of  the  pectoralis  major 

muscle. 

23.  The  tendon  of  the  left  latissimus  dorsi 

muscle. 


Fig.  I, — continued. 

24.  The  position  of  the  left  nipple. 

25.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

26.  The  cartilage  of  the  left  sixth  rib. 

27.  The  cartilage  of  the  left  tenth  rib. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  deeper  muscles  of  the 
front  of  the  neck ; the  longus  colli  and 
scaleni  muscles. 

1.  The  base  of  the  skull. 

2.  The  right  rectus  capitis  anticus  major 

muscle. 

3.  The  right  scalenus  medius  muscle. 

4.  The  right  scalenus  anticus  muscle. 

5.  The  longus  colli  muscle. 

6.  The  right  scalenus  posticus  muscle. 

7.  The  sternal  end  of  the  right  first  rib. 

8.  The  right  second  rib. 
g.  The  right  third  rib. 

10.  The  left  rectus  capitis  anticus  minor 

muscle. 

11.  The  left  rectus  capitis  lateralis  muscle. 

12.  The  upper  portion  of  the  left  longus  colli 

muscle. 

13.  The  left  scalenus  medius  muscle. 

14.  The  lower  portion  of  the  left  longus  colli 

muscle. 

1 5.  The  left  first  rib. 

16.  The  manubrium  of  the  sternum  (cut 

through). 

17.  The  left  second  rib. 

18.  The  left  third  rib. 


PLATE  28. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram  of  the  front  of  the  thorax, 
showing  the  attachments  of  the  ser- 
ratus  magnus  and  the  insertion  of  the 
coraco-brachialis,  sub  scapularis  and 
supra-spinatus  muscles. 

1 . The  right  first  rib. 

2.  The  right  supra-spinatus  muscle. 

3.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  right  scapula. 

4.  The  right  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

5.  The  venter  of  the  right  scapula. 

6.  The  thoracic  aponeurosis. 

7.  The  right  coraco-brachialis  muscle. 

8.  The  right  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

Q.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

10.  The  cartilage  of  the  right  sixth  rib. 

11.  The  left  sub-scapularis  muscle. 

12.  The  left  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

13.  The  cartilage  of  the  left  fourth  rib. 

14.  The  left  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

Fig.  2.  The  scapula  drawn  outward  to  show 
the  attachments  of  the  serratus  mag- 
nus muscle. 

1.  The  spine  of  the  first  thoracic  vertebra. 

2.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

3.  The  upper  portion  of  the  serratus  mag- 

nus muscle. 

4.  The  glenoid  fossa. 

5.  The  middle  portion  of  the  serratus  mag- 

nus muscle. 

6.  The  venter  of  the  scapula. 

7.  The  sixth  rib. 

8.  The  lower  portion  of  the  serratus  mag- 

nus muscle, 
g.  The  eleventh  rib. 

10.  The  twelfth  rib. 

Fig.  3.  Same  as  Fig.  2,  with  the  scapula  in 
proper  relation  to  the  thorax. 

1.  The  vertebra  prominens. 

2.  The  first  rib. 

3.  The  spinous  process  of  the  scapula. 

4.  The  dorsum  of  the  scapula. 

5.  The  middle  portion  of  the  serratus  mag- 

nus muscle. 

6.  The  lower  portion  of  the  serratus  mag- 

nus muscle. 

7.  The  twelfth  rib. 


PLATE  28 


k 


i 


( 


• .•  .5/ if*' 


' i 


. J 4 


& 


if 


Anatumy  in  /is  Kelatiun  to  Art. 


THE  ABDOMEN. 

The  abdomen  (Plate  31,  Fig.  i)  is  the  great  cavity  of  the  trunk  which 
contains  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canal,  the  liver,  the  spleen  and  the 
kidneys.  It  extends  between  the  thorax  above  and  the  pelvis  below. 
The  sides  of  the  abdomen,  between  the  front  and  the  loins,  are  called  the 
flanks. 

The  iandmarks  of  the  abdomen  { Plate  29,  Fig.  i ) are  the  prominences  of  the 
skeleton  which  can  be  felt  through  the  skin  in  this  region.  The  enciform 
cartilage  indicates  the  upper  limit  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  is  deeply  placed 
in  the  hollow  between  the  cartilages  of  the  seventh  ribs.  This  hollow  is 
always  noticeable,  and  is  the  so-called  “pit  of  the  stomach.”  The  anterior 
superior  spinous  processes  of  the  ilia,  commonly  called  the  haunch  bones  are 
the  outer  limits  of  the  abdominal  cavity:  they  are  always  recognizable.  The 
spinous  processes  of  the  pubic  bones,  where  they  join  in  front,  the  symphysis, 
are  the  lower  limit  of  this  region.  They  can  only  be  readily  ascertained  in 
thin  persons,  for  when  they  are  covered  with  much  fat  they  are  proportion- 
ately obscured. 

The  abdomen  is  narrowest  below'  the  tenth  ribs,  w'here  it  is  called  the 
w'aist.  The  cavity  of  the  abdomen  is  not  limited  by  the  above  boundaries 
as  indicated  by  the  points  of  reference  of  the  skeleton,  for  it  extends  upward 
a considerable  distance  beneath  the  ribs,  its  roof  being  formed  by  a dome- 
shaped partition  called  the  diaphragm.  (Plate  32,  Fig.  i.)  Owing  to  this 
deceptive  formation  of  the  abdominal  cavity  the  important  organs,  the  liver  on 
the  right  side  and  the  stomach  on  the  left,  are  under  cover  of  the  lower  ribs. 
(Plate  31,  Fig.  i.) 

The  diaphragm  (Plate  31,  Fig.  i,  and  Plate  32,  Fig.  i)  separates  the  cavity 
of  the  thorax  from  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  Its  construction  is  very 
peculiar,  as  it  consists  of  muscular  and  tendinous  portions  which  arch  upward 
and  inward,  converging  to  be  inserted  into  a common  central  tendon.  Its 
upper  surface  arches  into  the  thoracic  cavity  at  variable  heights,  being  higher 


57 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

on  the  right  side  than  on  the  left  (Plate  32,  Fig.  i).  Only  the  muscular  por- 
tions at  the  sides  are  movable. 

.Action  of  the  diaphragm. — In  expiration  it  mounts  upward,  in  inspiration 
it  descends,  ■ pushing  downward  somewhat  the  abdominal  viscera.  It  is  con- 
cerned in  coughing,  snee{ing  and  laughing. 

Lessing,  in  his  criticism  of  the  Laocobn,  draws  attention  to  the  depres- 
sioFi  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach  as  evidence  of  the  keen  observation  of  the 
artist  in  exhibiting  the  action  of  the  diaphragm  in  the  combined  mental  and 
physical  strain,  for  which  that  statue  will  always  be  one  of  the  marvels  of 
the  art  world. 

The  wall  of  the  abciomen  in  front  and  at  the  sides  is  composed  of  sev- 
eral sheets  of  muscles,  which  are  remarkably  disposed  so  that  they  afford  a 
movable  protective  covering  to  the  contents  of  the  abdominal  cavity. 

rbe  muscles  of  the  lateral  abdominal  wall  (Plate  29,  Fig.  3)  are  arranged 
in  three  strata  and  are  named  after  the  direction  of  their  fibres : the  external 
or  descending  oblique ; the  internal  or  ascending  oblique,  and  the  transversalis. 
The  sheaths  of  these  muscles  are  peculiar  in  their  tendinous  expansions  in 
front,  where  they  split  and  surround  the  recti  muscles,  extending  on  either 
side  of  the  middle  line  from  the  sternum  to  the  pubes. 

The  external  oblique  muscle  is  the  largest,  and  arises  from  the  lower  seven 
ribs,  interdigitating  with  the  serratus  magnus  muscle  (Plate  30,  Fig.  2).  The 
tendinous  expansions  from  the  external  oblique  muscles  are  remarkably  devel- 
oped toward  the  lower  margins  of  the  abdomen  in  the  groins,  where  great 
strength  is  required  to  sustain  the  pressure  of  the  viscera  from  within.  Here 
they  stretch  in  a curved  manner  from  the  anterior  spines  of  the  ilia  to  the 
pubic  sympl'iysis,  forming  thick  borders  which  are  the  femoral  arches,  or  the 
so-called  ligaments  of  Foil  part.  These  are  important,  because  they  constitute 
the  boundary  lines  between  the  abdomen  and  the  thighs  (Plate  29,  Fig.  1). 

The  internal  oblique  muscle  (Plate  30,  Fig.  1)  is  thinner  than  the  external. 
It  arises  from  the  outer  half  of  the  inner  border  of  Pouparfs  ligament,  and 
from  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  its  fibres  radiate  upward  to  the  lowermost 
four  ribs. 


58 


AnaUnuj  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  tra n SVC r satis  muscle  arises  from  Ute  inner  surface  of  the  six  lower 
costal  cartilages,  interdigitating  with  the  diaphragm,  and  from  the  crest  of. the 
ilium.  Its  fibres  pass  across  the  abdomen  as  far  as  the  tinea  seniiln nan's. 
The  latter  on  each  side  is  formed  by  the  blending  of  the  sheaths  of  the 
transversalis  and  oblique  muscles  at  the  borders  of  the  recti  muscles  (Plate 
30,  Fig.  i). 

The  recti  muscles  (Plates  26  and  30)  arc  in  front,  separated  fiaan  each  other 
by  the  tinea  alba,  which  is  formed  by  the  blending  of  the  sheaths  of  the  two 
muscles  and  corresponds  to  the  median  furrow  of  the  abdomen.  Each  muscle 
arises  from  the  pubes,  and  as  it  ascends  broadens  to  the  outer  surfaces 
of  the  cartilages  of  the  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  ribs.  The  recti  muscles 
are  crossed  by  three  transverse  tendinous  intersections  which  constitute  the 
tinea  transversal.  The  upper  one  of  these  is  opposite  the  enciform.  cartilage, 
the  lower  one  at  the  umbilicus,  and  the  intermediate  one  midway  between 
tlie  others.  The  furrow's  on  the  surface  corresponding  to  these  linea  trans- 
verScT  are  always  conspicuous  wlien  the  muscles  are  in  action. 

The  pyramidales  muscles  (Plate  30,  Fig.  2)  are  two  little  triangular-shaped 
muscles  arising  from  the  pubes  in  front  of  the  origins  of  the  recti  muscles. 

Action  of  the  abdominal  muscles. — The  cross  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the 
abdominal  muscles  serves  to  strengthen  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  in  a 
measure  suggests  their  functional  action.  Acting  together  they  support  and 
protect  the  abdominal  viscera.  They  are  quiescent  in  inspiration,  but  in 
expiration  they  assist  by  drawing  the  lower  ribs  downward  when  the  spinal 
column  is  fixed.  If  the  pelvis  is  fixed  the  muscles  of  both  sides  co-operate 
to  bend  the  thorax  forward,  and  when  those  of  one  side  act  alone  they 
bend  the  trunk  to  that  side.  The  oblique  muscles  cause  rotation  of  the 
trunk:  the  external  oblique  turning  the  face  to  the  opposite  side,  and  the 
internal  oblique  turning  it  to  the  same  side.  This  is  seen  in  imKcin^,  when 
the  right  external  oblique  and  the  left  internal  oblique  are  simultaneously 
brought  into  action.  In  climbing,  the  abdominal  muscles,  acting  from  the 
thorax,  draw  upward  the  pelvis. 

The  chief  action  of  the  recti  muscles  is  concerned  in  raising  the  body 
from  a recumbent  position.  Their  peculiar  segmentation  and  enclosure  in  so 

59 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

firm  a sheath,  as  above  described,  enables  them  to  maintain  their  actions  in 
all  possible  bendings  of  the  body.  (Plates  23  and  101.) 

The  skin  over  the  abdomen  is  more  adherent  to  the  subjacent  parts  at  the 
middle  line  than  elsewhere,  and  is  most  firmly  attached  at  the  groins.  It  is  very 
delicate  and  sensitive  above  the  umbilicus.  In  the  male  it  is  usually  darker 
in  color  in  the  middle  line  and  it  is  provided  with  fine  hairs  directed  down- 
ward. In  the  female  the  hairs  are  only  over  the  pubes.  The  fat  in  the 
superficial  fascia  of  this  region  varies  greatly  in  amount.  It  is  always  greater 
in  the  lower  part,  and  it  is  sometimes  enormous. 

The  umbilicus,  or  navel,  is  the  cicatrix  resulting  from  the  obliteration  of 
the  cord  at  birth  which  connected  the  child  with  the  mother.  It  is  peculiarly 
different  in  the  two  sexes,  being  shallow  and  small  in  the  male,  and  deep  and 
wide  in  the  female  (Plates  1 and  3).  In  the  adult  when  standing  erect  (Plate 
1,  Fig.  i),  the  umbilicus  is  about  opposite  the  disk  between  the  third  and 
fourth  lumbar  vertebrm.  It  varies  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the  obesity  or 
laxity  of  the  abdominal  wall.  It  is  always  below  the  centre  of  the  middle  line 
extending  from  the  enciform  cartilage  to  the  pubes.  At  the  age  of  two  years 
it  occupies  the  exact  mid-point  of  the  body,  measured  from  head  to  foot. 
Earlier  than  this  it  is  below  the  centre  and  in  later  life  above  it.  It  is  an 
important  point  of  reference,  and,  therefore,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  the 
adult,  in  either  sex,  it  is  situated  three-quarters  of  an  inch  above  a line  drawn 
from  one  iliac  crest  to  another  at  their  highest  points. 

The  surface  form  of  the  front  of  the  abdomen  is  irregular  and  it  should  be 
noted  that  the  depressions  correspond  to  the  subjacent  tendinous  intersections, 
being  strongly  contrasted  with  the  bulging  of  the  tleshy  parts  of  the  muscles 
(Plate  30). 

The  most  conspicuous  of  the  surface  depressions  are  the  median  fiirrove 
which  extends  from  the  enciform  cartilage  of  the  sternum  to  a point  midway 
between  the  umbilicus  and  the  pubes  and  the  right  and  left  lateral  furrou's 
which  curve  slightly  from  the  costal  cartilages  of  the  tenth  rib  along  the  outer 
borders  of  the  recti  muscles.  The  median  furrow  corresponds  to  the  subjacent 
linea  alba  and  the  lateral  furrows  to  the  linea  semilunaris.  When  the  body  is 
erect  the  recti  muscles  usually  present  two  uniform  masses  situated  between 

6o 


Andtoniy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


these  furrows  (Plate  1,  Fig.  i),  but  when  they  are  brought  into  action  by  bend- 
ing the  body  forward  or  backward  (Idate  23}  three  transverse  furrows  are 
produced  on  each  side ; the  upper  one  of  which  is  at  the  cartilage  of  the  eighth 
rib  and  the  lower  one  at  the  umbilicus,  while  the  middle  one  appears  middle 
way  between  them.  They  refer  to  the  linea  transversea  or  tendinous  inter- 
sections in  the  recti’  muscles  (Plate  30).  These  transverse  furrows  become 
especially  marked  when  the  body  is  raised  from  the  recumbent  position  or 
when  the  body  is  tense  from  the  effort  of  lifting,  or  bent  in  the  action  of 
supporting  great  weight  from  above.  On  this  account  they  should  be  strongly 
indicated  in  typical  figures  designed  as  Caryatides. 

The  muscles  of  the  posterior  wall  of  the  abdomen  are  the  qnadratns 
Inmbonim,  the  psoas  and  the  iliacus  muscles. 

The  qnadratns  Ininhornin  muscles  (Plate  43.  Fig.  i)  extend  from  the  crest 
of  the  ilium  to  the  last  rib  at  the  sides  of  the  lumbar  vertebra,  and  externally 
to  the  psoas  muscles. 

Action  of  the  qnadratns  liunbornin  muscles. — The  quadratus  lumborum  is 
peculiar  for  the  cross  direction  of  its  fibres,  which  enable  its  action  to  steady 
the  spinal  column  if  acting  from  below,  or  the  last  rib  if  acting  from  above. 

The  psoas  muscle  (Plate  43,  Fig.  2)  is  a large  fleshy  mass  arising  from  the 
transverse  processes  and  the  lateral  borders  of  the  bodies  of  the  last  thoracic 
and  upper  four  lumbar  vertebrie.  The  muscle  descends  vertically  to  the  brim 
of  the  pelvis,  where  it  becomes  tendinous  and  joins  with  the  tendon  of  the 
iliacus  muscle  to  be  attached  to  the  back  of  the  lesser  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

The  iliacus  muscle  (Plate  43,  Fig.  2)  is  fan-shaped  and  arises  from  the 
inner  margin  of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  its  tendon  blends  with  that  of  the 
psoas,  so  that  practically  the  iliacus  and  psoas  are  one  muscle. 

Action  of  the  iliacus  and  psoas  muscles. — Their  combined  action  serves 
to  flex  the  hip-joint  and  to  rotate  the  thigh  outward.  In  the  latter  effort  the 
base  of  support  of  the  body  is  widened,  so  that  it  assists  in  maintaining 
the  erect  position. 


61 


PLATE  29. 


Fig.  t.  The  landmarks  of  the  region  of  the 
abdomen  (from  the  front). 

1.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

2.  The  right  twelfth  rib. 

3.  The  position  of  the  right  linea  semi- 

lunaris. 

4.  The  position  of  the  umbilicus, 

5.  The  position  of  the  linea  alba. 

6.  The  position  of  the  right  ligament  of 

Poupart. 

7.  The  left  twelfth  rib. 

8.  The  position  of  the  left  linea  semi-lunaris. 

9.  The  position  of  the  linea  alba. 

10.  The  position  of  the  left  ligament  of 

Poupart. 

11.  The  symphisis  of  the  pubes. 

Fig.  2.  The  landmarks  of  the  region  of  the 
abdomen  (from  the  right  side). 

I.  The  seventh  rib, 

• 2.  The  eighth  rib. 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

3.  The  twelfth  rib. 

4.  The  ninth  rib. 

5.  The  eleventh  rib. 

6.  The  tenth  rib. 

7.  The  body  of  the  fourth  lumbar  vertebra. 

8.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

9.  The  umbilicus  (navel).^ 

10.  The  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium. 

Fig.  3.  Same  as  Fig.  2,  with  the  muscles. 

I.  The  lattisimus  dorsi  muscle. 

.2.  The  lumbar  aponeurosis. 

3.  The  triangle  of  Petit. 

4.  The  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

5.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

6.  The  end  of  the  eighth  rib. 

7.  The  umbilicus  (navel). 

8.  The  external  oblique  muscle. 

9.  The  crest  of  the  ilium. 


PLATE  30. 


Fig.  i.  Diagram  of  the  deeper  muscles  of  the 
anterior  abdominal  wall. 

1.  The  attachment  of  the  sheath  of  the 

right  rectus  muscle  over  the  seventh 
costal  cartilage. 

2.  The  sheath  of  the  rectus  muscle. 

3 The  transversalis  muscle. 

4.  The  umbilicus. 

5.  The  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium. 

6.  The  right  ligament  of  Poupart. 

7.  The  symphisis  pubes. 

8.  The  upper  portion  of  the  left  rectus  mus- 

cle. 

9.  The  middle  of  the  left  rectus  muscle. 

10.  The  linea  alba. 

11.  The  ascending  or  internal  oblique  mus- 

cle. 

12.  The  sheath  of  the  pyramidalis  muscle. 

13.  The  left  ligament  of  Poupart. 

14.  The  tendon  of  the  internal  oblique  mus- 

cle. 

15.  The  spermatic  cord. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  superficial  muscles  of 
the  abdominal  wall. 

1.  The  linea  alba. 

2.  The  upper  linea  transversa. 

3.  The  linea  alba. 

4.  The  linea  semilunaris. 

5.  The  descending  or  external  oblique  mus- 

cle. 

6.  The  tendon  of  the  external  oblique  mus- 

cle. 

7.  The  right  pyramidalis  muscle. 

8.  The  ligament  of  Poupart. 

9.  The  spermatic  cord. 

10.  The  sheath  over  the  rectus  muscle. 

11.  The  position  of  the  upper  linea  trans- 

versa. 

12.  The  middle  linea  transversa. 

13.  The  descending  or  external  oblique  mus- 

cle. 

14.  The  umbilicus. 

15.  The  tendon  of  the  external  oblique  mus- 

cle. 

16.  The  ligament  of  Poupart. 

17.  The  symphisis  pubis. 

18.  The  spermatic  cord. 


1 


PLATE  31. 


Figf.  J.  Photograph  of  a male  skeleton,  with 
outline.  The  sternum  and  front  por- 
tions of  the  ribs  are  removed  and  the 
viscera  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen 
are  inserted  diagrammatically  to  show  i 
their  relations  to  the  diaphragm. 

1.  The  upper  lobe  of  the  right  lung. 

2.  The  root  of  the  heart. 

3.  The  middle  lobe  of  the  right  lung. 

4.  The  lower  lobe  of  the  right  lung. 

5.  The  diaphragm. 

6.  The  liver. 

7.  The  gall  bladder. 


Fig.  I — continued. 

8.  The  position  of  the  vermiform  appendix. 

9.  The  bladder. 

10.  The  upper  lobe  of  the  left  lung. 

11.  The  lower  lobe  of  the  left  lung. 

12.  The  apex  of  the  heart. 

13.  The  stomach. 

14.  The  transverse  colon. 

15.  The  small  intestines. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a male  skeleton,  without 
outline,  to  be  compared  with  Fig.  1. 


PLATE  31 


Fig.  I 


Fig  2 


PLATE  32. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram  showing  the  attachments  of 
the  diaphragm. 

1.  The  right  fiftli  rib. 

2.  The  right  arch  of  the  diaphragm. 

3.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

4.  The  right  crus  of  the  diaphragm. 

5.  The  body  of  the  third  lumbar  vertebra. 

6.  The  right  crus  of  the  diaphragm. 

7.  The  left  fifth  rib. 

8.  The  left  sixth  rib. 

Q.  The  central  tendon  of  the  diaphragm, 
upon  which  the  heart  rests. 

10.  The  left  arch  of  the  diaphragm. 

1 1 . The  left  crus  of  the  diaphragm. 

12.  The  attachment  of  the  diaphragm  on  the 

body  of  the  third  lumbar  vertebra. 

13.  The  left  crus  of  the  diaphragm. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  the  intercostal  mus- 
cles. 

1.  The  right  first  rib. 

2.  The  right  second  rib. 

3.  The  external  intercostal  muscles  between 

the  second  and  third  ribs. 

4.  The  external  intercostal  muscle  between 

the  third  and  fourth  ribs. 

5.  Theexternal  intercostal  muscles  between 

the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs. 

6.  The  external  intercostal  muscles  between 

the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs. 

7.  The  left  first  rib. 

8.  The  left  second  rib. 

9.  The  internal  intercostal  muscle  between 

the  second  and  third  ribs. 

10.  The  internal  intercostal  muscle  between 

the  third  and  fourth  ribs. 

11.  The  internal  intercostal  muscle  between 

the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs. 

12.  The  internal  intercostal  muscle  between 

the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs. 


r 


PLATE  32 


A)utumy  in  its  Kelatiun  to  Art. 


THE  BACK. 

The  luck  properly  extends  from  the  occiput  to  the  sacrum,  and  tlie 
entire  vertebral  column  is  therefore  the  skeleton  of  this  region  (Plate 
33).  Examination  of  the  column  shows  that  the  spines  of  the  series 
of  vertebrae  are  not  exactly  in  a straight  line.  There  is  very  often  a diver- 
gence to  the  right  in  the  thoracic  portion,  caused  by  the  greater  use  of  the 
right  arm  than  of  the  left.  The  most  conspicuous  of  the  vertebral  spines  are 
that  of  the  seventh  cervical  and  that  of  tlie  first  thoracic,  and  those  of  the 
lumbar  region.  The  latter  have  an  intimate  connection  with  the  overlying 
structures  which  produces  well-marked  surface  dimplings. 

The  features  of  the  special  vertebrre  belonging  to  the  subdivisions  of  the 
neck,  thorax  and  loins  are  shown  on  Plates  11,  25  and  38,  and  are  described 
on  pages  43,  5' 3 and  90. 

The  relations  which  the  scapulae  bear  to  the  thorax  should  be  carefully 
noted.  The  spinous  processes  of  the  scapuke  can  be  felt  through  the  skin, 
and  when  the  arms  are  crossed  upon  the  chest  they  correspond  to  the  level 
of  the  spine  of  the  fourth  thoracic  vertebra  and  ascend  outwardly  to  the 
points  of  the  shoulders.  The  inferior  angles  of  the  scapute,  when  the  arms 
are  in  the  above  position,  are  on  the  level  of  the  spine  of  the  seventh 
thoracic  vertebra.  In  the  movements  of  the  upper  extremities,  the  vertebral 
borders  of  the  scapulae  hold  very  different  relations  to  the  spinal  column,  and 
when  the  shoulders  are  thrown  back,  with  the  arms  at  the  sides,  the  inferior 
angles  in  the  adult  are  about  three  inches  apart;  whereas,  when  the  arms  are 
crossed  upon  the  chest,  the  interval  between  them  measures  about  twelve 
inches,  and  this  may  be  increased  to  sixteen  inches  by  raising  the  arms  above 
the  head. 

The  muscles  of  the  back  are  arranged  in  several  layers.  The  superficial 
muscles  are  the  trapezius  and  latissimus  dorsi  muscles  which  overlie  the 
deeper  layer,  consisting  of  the  splenitis,  the  complexus  and  levator  anguli 

63 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

scapulae  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  the  rhomboideus,  the  serratus  postici 
superior  and  inferior,  and  the  erector  spinas  mass  at  the  back  of  the  trunk. 

The  trapezius  muscle  (Plate  35,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  inner  portion  of  the 
superior  curved  line  on  the  occipital  bone,  from  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebra  prominens  and  all  the  thoracic  vertebrm.  Each  trapezius  muscle  is 
triangular  in  shape,  but  the  two  together  form  a trapezoid.  The  fibres  of  each 
muscle  converge  from  their  extensive  origin  toward  the  shoulder.  Those  from 
the  spines  of  the  vertebrm  are  inserted  upon  the  upper  border  of  the  spinous 
process  of  the  scapula,  exactly  corresponding  to  the  origin  of  the.  deltoid  muscle 
on  the  lower  border  (page  7^).  The  fibr-es  from  the  occipital  bone  pass 
downward  and  curve  outwardly,  to  be  inserted  into  the  upper  margin  of  the 
clavicle.  (Plate  27,  Fig.  i.) 

Action  of  the  trapezius  muscle. — When  both  trapezii  muscles  act  from 
below  they  draw  the  head  backward,  or  one  muscle  acting  in  the  same  way 
will  turn  the  head  backward  to  the  corresponding  side.  The  whole  of  each 
muscle  can  raise  the  shoulder  by  retracting  the  scapula. 

The  latissimiis  dorsi  muscle  (Plate  36)  arises  on  each  side  from  the  lower 
six  thoracic  spines,  under  cover  of  the  trapezius  muscle  (Plate  31),  and  from 
the  upper  two  spines  of  the  sacrum  and  the  adjacent  crest  of  the  ilium  and 
passes  to  be  inserted  by  a Oat  tendon  one-and-a-half  inches  broad,  into  the 
floor  of  the  bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus  (Plate  34).  The  fibres  twist  on 
themselves  as  they  converge  toward  the  axilla,  and  curving  over  the  inferior 
angle  of  the  scapula,  are  so  disposed  at  their  insertion  that  the  fibres  from  the 
upper  portion  become  the  lowest  in  the  groove,  and  the  fibres  from  the  lower 
portion  the  highest.  This  muscle  is  usually  attached  by  a special  aponeurotic 
expansion  to  the  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula,  which,  together  with  its  origin 
beneath  the  trapezius  muscle,  serves  to  keep  the  scapula  in  relation  to  the 
chest  wall  in  the  movements  of  the  upper  extremity.  The  tendons  of  the 
latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major  muscles  form  the  posterior  fold  of  the  axilla 
or  arm-pit. 

Action  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. — This  muscle  draws  the  arm  inward 
and  backward,  co-operating  with  the  pectoralis  major  muscle,  but  if  the  arm 

C4 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


is  the  fixed  point,  as  in  climbing,  the  latissimus  dorsi  muscle  assists  in  raising 
the  trunk. 

The  splcnins  mnscle  (Plate  15)  arises  from  the  spines  of  the  upper  six 
thoracic  vertebrm  and  vertebra  prominens,  and  divides  into  two  portions,  the 
inner  of  which  (spienius  capitis)  is  inserted  into  the  mastoid  process  of -the 
temporal  bone  and  upon  the  curved  line  of  the  occipital  bone,  beneath  the 
sterno-mastoid  muscle,  and  the  outer  portion  (spienius  colli)  is  inserted  into 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  upper  three  cervical  vertebue. 

zAction  of  the  spienius  nmscles. — The  two  splenii  muscles  assist  the  two 
sterno-mastoid  muscles ; acting,  together,  they  hold  the  head  erect.  The  action 
of  either  of  them  (the  two  portions  working  together)  is  to  draw  the  head 
and  the  upper  cervical  vertebra  toward  its  own  side. 

The  complexiis  ninsde  (Plate  36)  is  beneath  the  trapezius  and  spienius 
muscles.  It  is  very  thick  and  powerful,  and  arises  from  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  lower  cervical  and  upper  thoracic  vertebra?.  It  is  inserted  into 
the  depression  between  the  two  curved  lines  on  the  occipital  bone.  This 
muscle  is  separated  from  its  fellow  by  the  ligamentnm  nuchce,  which  consists 
of  hbro-elastic  tissue  extending  along  'the  spines  of  all  the  cervical  vertebra?, 
except  the  Atlas,  to  the  occipital  protuberance.  In  man  it  is  the  rudiment  of  the 
strong  elastic  ligament  which  enables  some  of  the  lower  animals  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  head  (page  44).  At  the  outer  side  of  the  complexus  are  the 
trachelo-mastoid  and  transversalis-colli  muscles.  These  muscles  are  the  contin- 
uations to  the  head  and  neck  of  the  erector  spinae  mass  of  muscles  (Plate  37). 

The  levator  angnli  scapnlce  mnscle  (Plate  35,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  four  upper  cervical  vertebrae,  and  descends  along  the 
side  of  the  neck  and  is  inserted  into  the  superior  angle  of  the  scapula. 

Action  of  the  levator  angnli  scapulcB  muscle. — It  has  the  power  of  raising 
the  scapula,  as  in  shrugging  the  shoulders. 

The  rhomhoidens  mnscle  (Plate  35,  Fig.  i)  is  exposed  when  the  trapezius 
muscle  is  removed.  It  sometimes  consists  of  two  portions  called  the  major 

65 


Anaiomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

and  minor.  It  arises  from  the  vertebra  prominens,  and  the  spines  of  the 
five  upper  thoracic  vertebrce,  and  is  inserted  into  the  vertebral  border  of  the 
scapula,  a tendinous  arch  being  interposed  between  that  bone  and  the  lower 
portion  of  the  muscle. 

Action  of  the  rhoinboideiis  muscle. — It  draws  the  scapula  backward  and 
upward,  antagonizing  the  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

The  serratus  posticus  superior  muscle  (Plate  36,  Fig.  i)  is  beneath  the 
rhomboideus,  which  arises  from  the  ligamentum  nuchm  and  the  spines  of 
the  vertebrae  prominens  and  the  upper  two  thoracic  vertebrm.  It  passes 
obliquely  downward  to  be  attached  to  the  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth 
ribs  beyond  their  angles. 

Action  of  the  serratus  posticus  superior  muscle. — It  elevates  the  upper  ribs. 

The  serratus  posticus  inferior  muscle  is  under  the  latissimus  dorsi.  It  is 
larger  than  the  superior,  and  arises  from  the  lumbar  fascia  and  the  spines  of 
the  two  upper  lumbar  vertebra?,  and  is  attached  to  the  four  lower  ribs  beyond 
their  angles. 

Action  of  the  serratus  posticus  inferior  muscle. — It  depresses  the  lower 
ribs,  thereby  expanding  the  thoracic  cavity  and  enabling  the  diaphragm  (page 
15-8)  to  assist  in  expiration. 

The  lumbar  fascia  (Plate  34)  or  aponeurosis  is  the  dense  sheath  over  the 
deeper  muscles  of  the  back  and  the  loins.  The  latter  are  called  the  erector 
spina’  mass  of  muscles  and  are  exposed  upon  the  removal  of  the  lumbar 
fascia  as  is  shown  in  Plate  37.  This  fleshy  mass  occupies  the  groove  on 
the  side  of  the  lumbar  spines,  and  arises  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  iliac 
crest  from  the  sacrum  and  lumbar  vertebrm,  and  ascends  to  the  level  of  the 
twelfth  ribs,  where  it  subdivides  into  the  longissimus  dorsi  and  ilio-costalis 
muscles.  'I'he  longissimus  is  the  largest  portion  and  is  inserted  into  the 
transverse  processes  of  all  the  thoracic  vertebne  and  the  lower  borders  of 
the  eight  lower  ribs.  It  is  continued  in  the  neck  with  the  transversalis  colli 
muscle  (Plate  37). 

The  ilio  costalis  consists  of  fibres  wirich  ascend  outwardly  to  be  inserted 
into  the  angles  of  the  lower  nine  ribs. 

66 


^natotny  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


Beneath  the  longissimus  dorsi  muscle  are  the  senii-spinalis  and  ninltifuins 
muscles  (Plate  37)  which  are  a series  of  little  lleshy  slips  extending  from  each 
vertebra  to  the  one  above  it,  from  the  sacrum  to  the  second  cervical  vertebrae. 
In  the  thoracic  part  of  the  back  there  are  also  short  transverse  muscles,  the 
rotatores. 

<L/tction  of  the  erector  sfince  mass  of  muscles. — The  action  of  the  erector 
spinm  mass  of  muscles  can  be  well  shown  when  the  erect  position  is  slowly 
resumed  after  the  body  has  been  bent  forward,  especially  if  a heavy  weight 
be  lifted  at  the  same  time  (Plate  42.) 

The  skin  of  the  back  is  closely  adherent  to  the  superficial  fascia  wiiich  is 
dense  and  tough,  and  in  the  well-nourished  individual  contains  much  fat. 

It  has  been  stated  in  the  description  of  the  curvatures  of  the  spinal  column 
(page  ^2)  that  in  bending  the  body  forward  or  backward,  or  sideways  (Plate 
23)  the  changes  in  the  surface  contours  are  chiefly  due  to  the  contractions  of 
the  erector-spinm  mass  of  muscles  which  show  through  the  thinner  layer  of 
the  more  superficial  muscles  of  the  back,  which  for  the  greater  part  are  ten- 
dinous in  relation  to  the  spinal  column.  It  is  upon  the  sides  of  the  trunk, 
at  the  arm-pits  and  at  the  flanks,  that  the  superficial  muscles,  the  trapezii  and 
latissimus  dorsi,  contribute  to  the  outline. 

The  features  referable  to  the  development  and  action  of  the  muscles  in 
this  region  are  always  more  pronounced  in  men  than  in  women,  because  in 
women  there  is  a greater  amount  of  fat  in  the  superficial  fascia  which  masks 
the  details  of  the  surface  marking.  (Plate  5.) 

The  median  furrow  in  the  thoracic  portion  of  the  back  (page  63)  is  natu- 
rally deepened  by  the  drawing  together  of  the  scapulre  toward  the  middle  line 
through  the  action  of  the  trapezii  muscles.  (Plate  42). 

The  beauty  in  the  back  of  a woman,  which  depends  so  much  upon  the 
softness  and  grace  of  outline,  is  demonstrated  in  several  poses  upon  Plates 
77,  83  and  86. 


67 


PLATE  33. 


Photograph  of  the  Skeleton  of  an  European  male,  aged  33  years  { from  the  back). 


1.  The  occipital  protuberance. 

2.  The  spine  of  the  first  cervical  vertebra 

(Atlas). 

3.  The  spine  of  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra. 

4.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra (prominens). 

5.  The  spine  of  the  first  thoracic  vertebra. 

6.  The  left  first  rib. 

7.  The  left  clavicle. 

8.  The  acromion  process  of  the  left  scapula. 

9.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  left  scapula. 

10.  The  spine  of  the  left  scapula. 

11.  The  body  of  the  left  scapula. 

12.  The  inferior  angle  of  the  left  scapula. 

1 3.  The  left  eighth  rib. 

14.  The  left  ninth  rib. 

1 5.  The  left  tenth  rib. 

16.  The  left  eleventh  rib. 

17.  The  left  twelfth  rib. 

18.  The  crest  of  the  left  ilium. 

19.  The  posterior  spinous  process  of  the  left 

ilium. 


20.  The  left  ischium. 

21.  The  right  first  rib. 

22.  The  right  second  rib. 

23.  The  superior  angle  of  the  right  scapula. 

24.  The  right  third  rib. 

25.  The  spine  of  the  right  scapula. 

26.  The  right  fourth  rib. 

27.  The  body  of  the  right  scapula. 

28.  The  right  sixth  rib. 

29.  The  right  seventh  rib- 

30.  The  inferior  angle  of  the  right  scapula. 

31.  The  right  eighth  rib. 

32.  The  right  ninth  rib. 

33.  The  right  tenth  rib. 

34.  The  twelfth  thoracic  vertebra. 

35.  The  right  eleventh  rib. 

36.  The  right  twelfth  rib. 

37.  The  right  transverse  process  of  the  third 

lumbar  vertebra. 

38.  The  right  ilium. 

39.  The  sacrum. 

40.  The  coccyx. 


PLATE  33 


40 


PLATE  34. 


Diagram  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  Torso. 


1.  The  upper  portion  of  the  left  trapezius 

muscle. 

2.  The  left  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle. 

3.  The  position  of  the  vertebra  prominens. 

4.  The  acromion  process  of  the  left  scapula. 

5.  The  tendon  of  the  teres  major  muscle. 

6.  The  infra  spinatis  muscle. 

7.  The  tendon  of  the  left  latissimus  dorsi 

muscle. 

8.  The  position  of  the  inferior  angle  of  the 

left  scapula. 

g.  The  left  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

10.  The  left  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

T I . The  lowermost  attachment  of  the  trapezii 
muscles  over  the  spine  of  the  twelfth 
thoracic  vertebra. 

12.  The  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdo- 

men. 

13.  The  lumbar  aponeurosis. 

14.  The  crest  of  the  ilium. 

15.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

16.  The  position  of  the  great  trochanter  of 

the  left  femur. 

17.  The  coccyx. 


18.  The  lower  border  of  the  left  gluteus 
maximus  muscle. 

19  The  upper  portion  of  the  right  trapezius 
muscle. 

20.  The  sterno  mastoid  muscle. 

2 1 . The  acromion  process  of  the  right  scapula. 

22.  The  aponeurosis  of  the  trapezius  muscle. 

23.  The  infra  spinatis  muscle. 

24.  The  tendon  of  the  right  latissimus  dorsi 

muscle. 

25.  The  position  of  the  inferior  angle  of  the 

right  scapula. 

26.  The  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

27.  The  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

28.  The  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  ab- 

domen. 

29.  The  posterior  superior  spinous  process  of 

the  right  ilium. 

30.  The  position  of  the  great  trochanter  of 

the  right  femur. 

31.  The  position  of  the  tuberosity  of  the 

ischium. 

32.  The  position  of  the  lesser  trochanter  of 

the  right  femur. 


PLATE  34 


PLATE  35. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram -of  the  back  of  the  thorax, 
showing  the  attachments  of  the  trape- 
zius muscle  on  the  left  side,  and  the 
levator  anguli  scapulae  and  rhom- 
boideus  major  and  minor  muscles  on 
the  right  side. 

1.  The  cervical  portion  of  the  left  trapezius 

muscle. 

2.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

3.  The  left  trapezius  muscle. 

4.  The  acromion  process  of  the  left  scapula. 

5.  The  spine  of  the  left  scapula. 

6.  The  dorsum  of  the  left  scapula. 

7.  The  left  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

8.  The  left  eighth  rib. 

g.  The  inferior  angle  of  the  left  scapula. 

10.  The  left  ninth  rib. 

1 1 . The  left  tenth  rib. 

12.  The  attachment  of  the  trapezius  muscle 

on  the  twelfth  thoracic  vertebra. 

13.  The  left  twelfth  rib. 

14.  The  tendons  of  the  right  levator  scapula? 

muscles. 

15.  The  right  levator  scapula  muscle. 

16.  The  right  clavicle. 

17.  The  right  rhomboideus  minor  muscle. 

18.  The  right  rhomboideus  major  muscle. 

19.  The  right  serratus  magnus  muscle. 


Fig.  J — continued. 

20.  The  right  eighth  rib. 

21.  The  right  ninth  rib. 

22.  The  right  tenth  rib. 

23.  The  right  eleventh  rib. 

24.  The  right  twelfth  rib. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  the  attachments  of 
the  deeper  muscles  at  the  back  of  the 
neck, 

1.  The  left  rectus  capitis  posticus  minor 

muscle. 

2.  The  left  obliquus  capitis  superior  muscle. 

3.  The  left  rectus  capitis  posticus  major 

muscle. 

4.  The  left  obliquus  capitis  inferior  muscle. 

5.  The  rotatores  spinas  muscles. 

6.  The  left  first  rib. 

7.  The  inter-transversales  muscles. 

8.  The  right  mastoid  process. 

9.  The  right  obliquus  capitis  superior  mus- 

cle. 

10.  The  right  rectus  capitis  posticus  major. 

11.  The  right  obliquus  capitis  inferior  mus- 

cle. 

12.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver 

tebra. 

13.  The  right  first  rib. 

14.  The  right  inter-transversales  muscles. 


ri. 


PLATE  36. 


Diagfram  of  the  back  of  the  trunk  showing  the  attachments  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  and 
complexus  muscles  on  the  left  side,  and  the  biventer  cervicis  and  the  serrati  postici  muscles 
on  the  right  side. 


1.  The  upper  portion  of  the  left  complexus 

muscle, 

2.  The  lower  portion  of  the  left  complexus 

muscle. 

3.  The  tendon  of  the  left  latissimus  dorsi 

muscle. 

4.  The  attachment  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  on 

the  spine  of  the  eighth  thoracic  vertebra. 

5.  The  left  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

6.  The  left  external  oblique  muscle  of  the 

abdomen. 

7.  The  triangle  of  Petit. 

8.  The  coccyx. 


9.  The  upper  portion  of  the  right  biventer 
cervicis  muscle. 

10.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

11.  The  right  serratus  posticus  superior  mus- 

cle. 

12.  The  middle  tendon  of  the  biventer  cer- 

vicis muscle. 

13.  The  lower  portion  of  the  right  biventer 

cervicis  muscle. 

14.  The  right  ninth  rib. 

15.  The  right  serratis  posticus  inferior  mus- 

cle. 


PLATE  36 


c: 


vii 


PLATE  37. 


Diagfram  of  the  back  of  the  trunk,  showing  the  attachments  of  the  deep  spinal  muscles 
on  the  left  side,  and  the  erector  spinae  mass  of  muscles  on  the  right  side. 


1.  The  spine  of  the  second  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

2.  The  left  spinalis  colli  muscle. 

3.  The  spine  of  the  seventh  cervical  ver- 

tebra. 

4.  The  left  first  rib. 

5.  The  spine  of  the  third  thoracic  vertebra. 

6.  The  spinalis  dorsi  muscles. 

7.  The  left  sixth  rib. 

8.  The  left  twelfth  rib. 


g.  The  left  quadratus  lumborum  muscle. 

10.  The  right  erector  spins  mass  of  muscles 

11.  The  right  trachelo  mastoid  muscle. 

12.  The  right  cervicalis  ascendens  muscle. 

13.  The  right  longissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

14.  The  right  eighth  rib. 

15.  The  right  sacral  lumbalis  muscle. 

16.  The  right  internal  oblique  muscle  of  the 

abdomen. 

17.  The  erector  spins  mass  of  muscles. 


PLATE  37 


ir 


i 


Andtomy  in  its  RAdtion  to  Art. 


THE  UPPER  EXTREMITY. 

The  skeleton  of  the  upper  extremity  (Plate  39,  Figs.  i and  2)  consists  of 
the  clavicle,  the  scapula,  the  humerus,  the  ulna  and  the  radius,  the 
carpal,  the  meta-carpal  and  the  digital  bones. 

The  clavicles,  or  collar-bones  (Plate  38,  Figs.  4 and  ^),  are  the  long,  irreg- 
gular  bones  which  extend  outward  over  the  first  ribs  to  the  shoulders, 
which  they  join  with  the  outer  processes  of  the  scapulas  in  forming.  These 
bones  are  superficial  throughout  their  greater  extent,  and  should  be  carefully 
studied  by  the  artist.  In  the  female  the  clavicles  are  more  slender  than  in 
the  male.  Their  proportions  depend  upon  the  strain  required  of  the  muscles 
which  are  attached  to  them.  The  right  clavicle  is  often  shorter  than  the  left. 
Each  bone  presents  a peculiar  S-shaped  curvature,  so  that  the  anterior  border 
begins  by  curving  forward  at  the  sternal  end,  and  at  the  middle  gradually 
curves  backward  to  the  shoulder,  where  it  points  outward.  The  posterior 
border  is  exactly  the  reverse.  The  degree  of  curvature  of  the  inner  portion 
is  very  variable,  especially  in  men,  and  the  freedom  and  much  of  the  grace 
of  movement  of  the  upper  extremity  depend  upon  it.  The  sternal  end  is' 
rough,  thick  and  prominent,  and  rests  upon  a shallow  depression  in  the 
upper  border  of  the  sternum.  The  joint  at  this  locality  is  remarkable  for 
the  strength  of  the  ligaments  which  secure  it,  and  it  is  important  to  under- 
stand that  this  joint  is  the  only  direct  connection  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
upper  extremity  with  the  thorax.  The  outer  end  of  the  clavicle  is  rough, 
broad  and  fattened,  where  it  is  joined  by  strong  ligaments  to  the  scapula. 
The  joints  of  the  clavicle,  with  the  sternum  and  scapula  (Plate  7,  Figs,  i, 

2 and  3),  are  capable  of  very  slight  motion,  but  slight  as  this  motion  is,  it 
is  essential  to  the  perfect  freedom  and  harmonious  movement  of  the  upper 
extremity. 

The  scapula’,  or  shoulder-blades  (Plate  38,  Figs,  i,  2,  3),  are  the  triangular 
bones  situated  at  the  back  of  the  upper  part  of  the  thorax,  extending  between 

69 


Anatomy  in  its  T^elation  to  Art. 

tlie  second  and  seventh  ribs.  Each  scapula  consists  mainly  of  a broad,  flat 
plate,  the  body,  with  raised  and  roughened  borders.  The  dorsal  surface  is 
smooth  and  slightly  convex,  while  the  inner  surface  is  concave,  adapting 
itself  to  the  shape  of  the  thorax.  Upon  the  dorsal  surface  there  is  a prom- 
inent projection  called  the  spinous  process,  which  divides  the  upper  third 
of  the  bone  into  two  hollows  called  the  superior  and  inferior  spinous 
fossce.  The  outward  termination  of  the  spine  is  called  the  acromion  process, 
and  forms,  with  the  corresponding  end  of  the  clavicle,  the  summit  of  the 
shoulder.  The  upper  border  of  the  scapula  ends  in  a projection  called 
the  caracoid  process,  which  is  curiously  crooked  and  resembles  the  little 
finger  half  bent.  It  can  be  felt,  during  life,  below  the  clavicle  extend- 
ing forward  over  the  shoulder  joint.  The  thickest  part  of  the  bone 
is  at  the  anterior  angle.  It  is  called  the  bead,  and  presents  an  oval 
shallow  fossa,  the  glenoid  cavity,  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the 
humerus.  The  central  portion,  or  body  of  the  scapula,  is  extremely  light 
and  presents  various  ridges  both  upon  the  surfaces  and  at  the  borders 
which  afford  attachment  to  the  various  muscles  which  take  origin  from 
this  bone. 

The  clavicle  and  scapula  are  the  framework  of  the  shoulder  proper,  and, 
with  those  of  the  opposite  side,  form  the  shoulder  girdle  (Plate  38,  Fig.  14). 
The  girdle  is  incomplete  posteriorly,  owing  to  the  gap  between  the  two  scapulae, 
which  are  connected  with  the  thorax  solely  by  muscles,  while  in  front  the 
two  clavicles  are  supported  upon  and  connected  with  the  top  of  the  sternum 
by  strong  ligaments  (page  51).  The  shoulder  girdle  is  remarkable  for  its 
lightness  and  great  mobility. 

There  is  a marked  difference  in  the  way  men  and  women  naturally 
carry  their  shoulders,  owing  partly  to  the  relative  development  of  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  partly  to  the  different  form  of  the  thorax  in  the 
two  sexes.  The  broader  the  thorax  the  broader  is  the  surface  upon  which 
the  shoulder  girdle  is  supported.  In  men  who  have  been  strong  and  well 
nourished  since  childhood  the  outer  ends  of  the  collar  bones  slope  outward 
and  upward,  whereas  in  women  both  ends  of  the  collar  bones  are  either  on 
the  same  level  or  they  slope  outward  and  downward. 


70 


A)iatumy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  humerus  (Plate  38,  Figs.  6,  7,  8 and  9)  is  the  single  long  bone  of 
the  arm.  It  presents  a shaft,  or  body,  and  upper  and  lower  ends,  which  are 
respectively  adapted  to  the  shoulder  and  elbow  joints. 

The  upper  end  of  the  humerus  consists  of  a smooth  hemispherical  head 
directed  upward,  and  inward,  and  backward,  when  the  arm  is  at  the  side  of 
the  body,  to  be  received  against  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula  (Plate  7, 
Fig.  i).  The  constriction  below  the  head  is  called  the  neck.  From  this  the 
greater  tuberosity  extends  outward.  The  latter  is  a rough  prominence,  and 
gives  attachment  to  the  supra-spinatus,  infra-spinatus  and  teres  minor  mus- 
cles (Plate  41,  Fig.  1).  Another  prominence,  the  lesser  tuberosity,  projects 
forward  from  the  neck  and  receives  the  attachment  of  the  sub-scapularis 
muscle.  Between  these  tuberosities  is  a deep  vertical  furrow,  the  bicipital 
groove,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle 
(Plate  43,  Fig.  1).  Below  the  tuberosities  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  is 
cylindrical  as  far  as  the  middle,  where  the  outer  side  is  roughened  for  the 
attachment  of  the  powerful  deltoid  muscle.  Below  the  latter  point  the  shaft 
becomes  prismatic  and  slopes  downward  and  slightly  forward  to  the  lower 
end,  where  it  becomes  transversely  flattened  (Plate  38,  Figs.  6 and  7). 

The  lower  end  of  the  humerus  has  in  its  central  part  the  trochlea,  which  is 
smooth,  rounded,  and  constricted  at  the  middle,  so  that  the  inner  portion  is 
somewhat  larger,  and  projects  lower  than  the  outer.  In  front  there  is  above 
the  constriction  a depression,  the  coronoid  fossa,  for  the  coronoid  process  of  the 
ulna  when  the  forearm  is  flexed.  Behind,  there  is  a similar  depression,  the 
olecranon  fossa,  for  the  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna  when  the  forearm  is 
extended.  Jutting  out  from  the  external  part  of  the  trochlea  is  a rough,  blunt 
process,  the  external  condyle,  and  from  the  inner  part  of  the  trochlea  there  is 
a more  prominent  process,  the  internal  condyle,  which  occupies  a lower  plane 
than  the  external.  The  extensor  muscles  of  the  wrist  and  hand  are  attached 
to  the  external  condyle,  and  the  flexor  muscles  to  the  internal  condyle. 

The  elbow  is  formed  by  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  and  the  upper 
end  of  the  ulna,  which  are  so  adapted  to  each  other  that  they  establish  a 
hinge-joint  (page  22)  of  very  considerable  strength  by  which  the  arm  is  con- 
nected with  the  forearm  (Plate  8,  Figs.  1,2,  3,  4,  ^ and  6). 


71 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

There  are  two  long  bones  in  the  forearm,  the  ulna  and  the  radius  (Plate 
47,  Figs.  1,  2 and  and  Plate  48,  Fig.  i).  The  upper  end  of  the  ulna 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  skeleton.  It  consists  of  two 
conspicuous  processes  separated  by  a deep  hollow,  the  sigmoid  cavity.  The 
process  which  extends  backward  is  the  olecranon  process,  and  forms  the 
prominence  of  the  elbow.  It  is  thick  and  strong,  and  ends  in  a curved  tip, 
which  is  received  into  the  olecranon  fossa  of  the  humerus  when  the  fore- 
arm is  extended.  The  back  part  of  the  olecranon  is  roughened  for  the 
attachment  of  the  triceps  extensor  muscle  (page  77).  The  sigmoid  cavity  is  the 
part  which  articulates  with  the  trochlea  surface  on  the  humerus.  The  cavity 
terminates  in  front  in  the  coronoid  process,  which  rests  in  the  coronoid  fossa  of 
the  humerus  when  the  forearm  is  flexed.  The  base  of  the  coronoid  process 
is  directly  continuous  with  the  shaft  of  the  ulna.  The  upper  end  of  the  radius, 
although  it  is  present  within  the  elbow  joint,  does  not  properly  take  part  in 
the  function  of  that  joint.  The  upper  end  of  the  radius  is  called  its  head.  It 
is  rounded  and  presents  a cupped  depression  which  glides  upon  the  outer  con- 
dyloid surface  of  the  humerus.  Below  the  head  the  radius  is  constricted, 
forming  the  neck,  which  has  a ring-like  ligament,  the  orbicular  (Plate  8,  Fig.  6), 
to  connect  it  with  the  adjacent  portion  of  the  ulna.  Where  the  neck  joins  the 
shaft  there  is,  at  the  inner  side  of  the  bone,  the  prominent  bicipital  lubenie, 
at  the  posterior  and  under  surface  of  which  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  flexor 
muscle  is  attached  (Plate  43,  Fig.  i). 

The  shafts  of  the  ulna  and  radius  (Plate  39),  beyond  their  upper  extrem- 
ities, extend  side  by  side  to  the  wrist,  and  are  peculiarly  formed,  not  only  to 
support  the  soft  structures  of  the  forearm,  but  also  to  be  adapted  to  their 
respective  functions;  the  ulna  being  employed  principally  in  extension  and 
flexion,  while  the  office  of  the  radius  is  to  rotate  the  hand  in  pronation  and 
supination.  The  radius  is  external  on  the  thumb  side,  and  the  ulna  is  internal 
on  the  side  of  the  little  finger.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna  gradually  diminishes  in 
size  from  the  upper  end  to  the  lower.  It  is  prismatic  in  form  and  twisted  on 
its  axis,  so  that  below  the  elbow  it  inclines  a little  toward  the  radius,  becomes 
quite  straight  at  its  middle,  and  arches  slightly  away  from  the  radius  low'er 
down,  where  its  rounded  surface  bends  back  again  to  be  received  upon  a 
depression  on  the  adjacent  border  on  the  lower  end  of  the  radius.  The 


72 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


upper  three-fourths  of  the  radial  or  external  border  of  the  ulna  is  provided 
with  a sharp  edge ; the  internal  border  is  smooth  above  and  rough  below. 
The  lower  end  of  the  ulna  is  very  small,  and  terminates  in  a blunt,  pointed 
projection,  the  styloid  process,  resembling  the  end  of  an  elephant’s  trunk. 
The  shaft  of  the  radius  below  the  bicipital  tubercle  is  prismatic  in  form  and 
gradually  increases  in  breadth  to  the  lower  fourth  of  the  bone,  where  it  is 
expanded  into  a large  quadrilateral-shaped  extremity,  for  articulation  with  the 
wrist.  The  shaft  is  slightly  bent  forward-  and  inward,  having  a convex  outer 
border  and  an  inner  or  ulna  border  which  presents  a sharp  edge  similar  to  that 
on  the  ulna.  These  opposing  edges  of  the  radius  and  ulna  are  connected 
by  the  interosseous  membrane  which  extends  from  one  to  the  other. 

The  interosseous  membrane  strengthens  the  two  bones  and  enables  the  hand 
to  support  a weight,  or  push  against  an  object  in  extension,  as  when  the 
humerus  and  ulna  are  in  direct  line,  constituting  the  huniero-ulnar  shaft. 
The  interosseous  membrane  limits  the  movement  of  the  radius  about  the  ulna; 
it  also  offers  a broad  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  deep  flexor  and 
extensor  muscles.  The  lower  end  of  the  radius  is  the  broadest  part  of  the 
bone.  It  presents  two  articular  surfaces,  the  outer  of  which  is  triangular 
and  the  inner  is  quadrate,  for  the  reception  of  the  scaphoid  and  the  semi- 
lunar bones  of  the  wrist.  The  outer  border  terminates  in  the  styloid  process 
(Plate  3b). 

The  skeleton  of  the  hand  (Plates  49  and  31)  consists  of  the  wrist  or 
carpus,  the  median  portion  of  the  hand  or  meta-carpus,  and  the  phalanges, 
or  bones  of  the  fingers.  There  are  eight  carpal  bones,  which  are  small 
and  thick,  and  arranged  in  two  rows  of  four  each  (Plate  51).  In  the  upper 
row,  counting  from  the  external  or  radial  side,  are  the  scaphoid,  semi-lunar, 
cuneiform  and  pisiform.  In  the  lower  row  are  the  trapezium,  trapezoid, 
magnum  and  unciform.  When  the  bones  of  the  wrist  are  collectively  united 
they  form  an  arch  with  its  concavity  toward  the  palm ; the  scaphoid  and 
trapezium,  the  two  outer  bones  of  the  two  rows,  and  the  pisiform  and 
unciform,  the  two  inner  bones  of  the  two  rows,  projecting  laterally.  The 
contiguous  surfaces  of  the  carpal  bones  are  so  adapted  that  they  form  with 
one  another  gliding  joints,  the  motion  between  any  two  of  them  being  very 


73 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

slight,  and  limited  to  extension  and  flexion.  The  articulation  between  the  two 
rows  has,  however,  considerable  motion  and  contributes  to  the  flexion  and 
extension  of  the  hand. 

Tbe  wrist  joint  (Plate  9,  Figs.  5 and  6)  consists  of  the  articular  surfaces 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  and  the  upper  portions  of  the  scaphoid  and 
semi-lunar  bones.  The  lower  end  of  the  ulna  is  separated  from  the  wrist 
by  a small  triangular  fibro  cartilage. 

There  are  five  mcta-carpal  bones  (Plate  51).  They  are  modified  long 
bones,  each  consisting  of  a somewhat  triangular  shaft,  slightly  bowed  with 
the  concavity  toward  the  palm.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb  is 
shorter  and  broader  than  the  others,  and  its  palmar  surface  is  turned  toward 
the  ulna  side  of  the  hand.  The  joint  between  the  trapezium  and  the  meta- 
carpal bone  of  the  thumb  is  distinct  and  protected  by  strong  ligaments.  The 
meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger  is  the  longest,  the  rest  of  the  series 
being  shorter  toward  the  little  finger.  All  the  meta-carpal  bones  diverge  from 
the  carpus. 

Tbe  phalanges  (Plates  49  and  51)  are  small,  long  bones,  three  in  each  finger 
and  two  in  the  thumb.  They  successively  increase  in  size  toward  the  wrist. 
The  second  phalanges  of  the  middle  and  ring  fingers  are  equal  in  length ; that 
of  the  index  finger  is  shorter  and  that  of  the  little  finger  is  the  smallest  of 
the  series.  The  terminal  phalanges  have  horse-shoe  shaped  nngnal  processes, 
which  are  roughened  on  the  palmar  surfaces.  That  of  the  thumb  is  the 
largest  and  broadest,  while  the  corresponding  processes  of  the  middle,  ring, 
index  and  little  fingers  follow  in  order  as  named. 

The  should er-joint  (page  21)  consists  of  the  adaptation  of  the  head  of  the 
humerus  upon  the  glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula  (Plate  7).  This  joint  is 
materially  strengthened  by  the  disposition  of  the  tendons  which  pass  over 
the  capsule  of  the  joint  to  be  attached  to  the  tuberosities  of  the  humerus. 
The  tendons  are  furnished  by  the  biceps  (page  76),  supra-spinatus,  infra- 
spinatus, teres  minor  and  the  sub-scapular  muscles. 

Tbe  supra-spinatns  muscle  (Plate  41,  Fig.  1)  is  lodged  in  the  supra-spinous 
fossa  of  the  scapula.  Its  fibres  arise  from  the  inner  portion  of  the  bone  and 


74 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


converge  into  a strong  tendon,  which  is  inserted  on  the  greater  tuberosity  of 
the  luimerus. 

I'he  infraspinatus  muscle  (Plate  41,  Fig.  n arises  from  the  ridge  on  the 
scapula  below  the  spinous  process,  and  its  tendon  is  inserted  on  the  greater 
tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 

The  teres  minor  {lesser-ronnd)  muscle  (Plate  41,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the 
upper  portion  of  the  axillary  border  of  the  scapula  and  passes  obliquely 
upward  to  be  inserted  also  on  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 

The  tendons  of  these  muscles  strengthen  the  shoulder  at  its  upper  and 
back  parts. 

The  feres  major  {greater  round)  muscle  (Plate  41,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  axillary  border  and  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula  and  ascends 
outwardly,  diverging  from  the  teres  minor,  so  that  its  tendon  blends  with  that 
of  the  latissimus  dorsi  muscle  (page  64)  and  is  inserted  into  the  thoracic 
border  of  the  bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus,  thus  forming  the  posterior 
border  of  the  axilla  or  arm-pit. 

The  actions  of  the  supra-spinatus,  infraspinatus  and  teres  minor  muscles 
serve  to  rotate  the  arm  bone  outwardly.  When  the  arm  is  raised  by  the 
deltoid  muscle  they  assist  in  retaining  it  in  that  position. 

The  action  of  the  teres  major  muscle. — This  muscle  assists  the  latissimus 
dorsi  (page  64)  in  drawing  the  arm  downward  and  inward. 

The  tendons  of  the  above  muscles  are  covered  by  the  great  deltoid  muscle, 
which  forms  a complete  shoulder-cap  (Plate  41,  Figs.  2,  3 and  4). 

The  deltoid  muscle  was  so  called  because  of  its  resembling  the  Greek 
letter  a reversed.  It  arises  from  the  lower  border  of  the  outer  portion  of 
the  clavicle,  the  acromion  process,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  spine  of  the 
scapula.  This  extensive  origin  corresponds  to  that  of  the  trapezius  muscle 
above  (page  64).  The  fibres  of  the  deltoid  are  very  coarse  and  arranged  in 
bundles  which  are  separated  by  inward  expansions  of  the  strong  sheath  of 
the  muscle  derived  from  the  deep  fascia.  The  bundles  arising  from  the 
clavicle  and  the  spine  of  the  scapula  generally  converge  to  their  insertion  at 
the  sides  of  the  deltoid  tuberosity  at  the  middle  of  the  outer  side  of  the 
shaft  of  the  humerus,  while  those  from  the  acromion  process  are  peculiarly 
arranged.  There  are  additional  fibres  arising  from  the  septa  within  the  muscle 


75 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

itself  which,  pass  vertically  to  be  attached  to  a median  ridge  on  the  deltoid 
tuberosity.  In  this  way  the  bundles  reinforce  one  anotlier,  and  the  increased 
number  of  their  fibres  compensates  for  their  length,  thus  greatly  augmenting 
the  functional  power  of  the  whole  muscle.  From  the  front  the  attachment  of 
the  deltoid  muscle  resembles  the  letter  V (Plates  40  and  41);  it  is  embraced 
by  the  two  origins  of  the  brachialis  anticus,  and  this  occasions  the  character- 
istic depression  of  the  overlying  skin. 

Action  of  the  deltoid  muscle. — The  three  portions  of  the  deltoid  can  act 
independently  (Plates  41,  42  and  102)  in  raising  the  arm  forward,  outward  or 
backward,  each  acting  to  better  advantage  w hen  the  humerus  is  rotated  out- 
wardly by  the  supra-spinatus,  infra-spinatus,  and  teres  minor  muscles.  The 
power  of  the  deltoid  depends  greatly  upon  the  scapula  being  steadied  by  its 
controlling  muscles.  When  the  whole  muscle  contracts  it  raises  the  arm  to 
the  horizontal  position  at  a right  angle  with  the  trunk.  Beyond  this  it  cannot 
act,  further  elevation  being  effected  by  the  serratus  magnus  and  trapezius 
muscles,  which  then  raise  the  shoulder. 

The  axilla,  or  arm-pit,  varies  in  depth  with  the  position  of  the  arm 
(Plates  22  and  42).  It  is  a pyramidal  space,  bounded  internally  by  the  side 
of  the  thorax,  externally  by  the  arm,  and  in  front  and  behind  by  prominent 
muscular  folds.  The  anterior  fold  is  formed  by  the  lower  border  of  the 
pectoralis  major  muscle  (page  ^4),  while  the  posterior  fold  is  formed  by  the 
lower  borders  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major  muscles  (page  64). 
The  inner  wall  of  the  axilla  is  formed  by  the  four  upper  ribs,  with  the  intercos- 
tal muscles,  covered  by  the  serratus  magnus  muscle  (Plate  28).  The  skin 
of  the  axilla  is  closely  connected  with  the  superficial  fascia  of  this  region,  and 
is  provided  with  long  hairs  radiating  toward  the  borders  of  the  cavity. 

The  muscles  of  the  arm  (Plates  40,  43  and  44)  are  the  biceps,  the  coraco- 
brachialis,  the  brachialis  anticus,  and  the  triceps. 

The  biceps  muscle  (Plate  43,  Fig.  i)  is  so  called  because  it  has  a double 
origin.  The  long  bead  arises  by  a long,  round  tendon  from  the  top  of  tlie 
glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula,  which  arches  over  the  head  of  the  humerus 

76 


Andiomy  in  Us  Rdaliun  to  Art. 


within  the  capsule  of  the  shoulder  joint,  pierces  the  latter  between  the  two 
tuberosities,  and  descends  in  the  bidpitat  groove  between  them.  It  is  held 
in  place  by  the  tendon  of  the  pectoralis  major  muscle,  which  passes  over  to 
be  inserted  into  the  outer  border  of  the  groove.  Owing  to  this  disposition  of 
the  long  tendon  it  serves  as  a ligament,  greatly  strengthening  the  front  of  the 
shoulder  joint.  The  short  bead  arises  from  the  point  of  tlie  coracoid  process 
of  the  scapula.  The  fibres  from  the  two  heads  unite  about  the  middle  of  the 
front  of  the  arm  and  form  a single  mass  which  is  subject  to  great  variations 
in  development  in  different  individuals.  It  terminates  suddenly  in  a flat  ten- 
don, which  is  inserted  into  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  bicipital  tubercle 
of  the  radius.  This  muscle  is  of  considerable  length,  and  being  subcutaneous, 
can  be  readily  felt  upon  its  contraction.  From  the  tendon  a leaflet  is  given 
off  which  blends  with  the  deep  fascia  covering  the  tlexor  muscles  of  the 
forearm.  This  disposition  of  the  insertion  of  the  biceps  tendon  augments 
the  power  of  tlexion  of  the  forearm  in  contending  with  resistance,  as  in  pulling 
the  body  forward  or  lifting  a weight. 

Action  of  the  biceps  ninscle. — Its  action  is  to  both  flex  and  supinate  the 
forearm  when  the  elbow  is  bent. 

The  coraco-bracbialis  muscle  (Plate  "28,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  coracoid 
process  of  the  scapula  in  common  with  the  short  head  of  the  biceps,  and  is 
inserted  at  the  middle  of  the  inner  side  of  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  opposite 
the  insertion  of  the  deltoid. 

diction  of  the  corn co-brach Litis  muscle. — Its  action  is  to  draw  the  arm 
upward  and  inward  toward  the  side  of  the  chest.  It  is  the  hugging  muscle, 
which  is  peculiarly  developed  in  the  bear  tribe. 

! he  bracbialis  anticns  muscle  (Plate  43,  Fig.  2)  arises  by  two  portions 
which  embrace  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid  and  from  the  front  surface  of  the 
humerus,  and  passes  over  the  front  of  the  elbow  joint  to  be  inserted  on  the 
coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

Action  of  the  brachialis  anticns  muscle. — It  serves  to  flex  the  elbow. 

The  triceps  muscle  (Plate  44,  Fig.  1)  has  three  origins,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates. It  is  situated  at  the  back  of  the  arm.  The  middle  head  is  the  longest 
and  arises  from  the  bottom  of  the  glenoid  fossa  of  the  scapula.  The 


77 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

outer  head  arises  from  tlie  upper  end  of  the  humerus  below  the  external 
tuberosity.  The  inner  head  arises  from  the  back  part  of  the  upper  end  of 
the  humerus.  The  three  portions  unite  about  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the 
arm,  and  the  resulting  tendon  is  very  thick  and  strong.  It  is  inserted^  into 
the  top  and  sides  of  the  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna. 

Action  of  the  triceps  muscle. — It  acts  as  a powerful  extensor  of  the 
forearm  upon  the  upper  arm. 

The  condyles  are  the  only  parts  of  the  humerus  which  are  sub-cutaneous, 
and  although  the  shaft  can  be  felt  through  the  soft  structures  there  are  no  other 
bony  prominences:  therefore,  the  surface  marking,  which  is  due  to  the  contour 
of  the  muscles,  is  of  particular  interest.  This  is  more  pronounced  in  muscular 
men  than  in  women,  whose  arms  are  rounded  and  of  regular  outline.  Fat, 
here  as  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  always  subdues  the  depressions  and  renders 
them  less  noticeable. 

The  skin  over  the  region  of  the  shoulder  is  comparatively  thin,  and,  although 
there  may  be  a considerable  amount  of  fat  in  the  sub-cutaneous  tissue  in  certain 
localities,  which  softens  and  subdues  the  surface  markings,  yet  the  prominences 
of  the  bony  framework  can  always  be  felt  through  the  skin.  These  landmarks 
are  of  exceeding  value  to  the  artist,  and  in  order  to  determine  them  with 
accuracy  it  is  advisable  to  compare  the  corresponding  points  of  both  shoulders. 

The  skin  in  the  front  and  inner  side  of  the  arm  is  very  smooth  and  del- 
icate. The  deltoid  depression  is  usually  easily  recognizable,  and  the  bulge  of 
the  biceps  muscle  causes  its  outline  to  be  usually  well  defined,  so  that  there 
are  furrows  or  depressions  on  each  side  of  it. 

The  skin  over  the  elbow  is  very  thin  and  fine,  so  that  the  relations  of 
the  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle  can  be  easily  recognized  ; whereas  behind, 
over  the  olecranon,  the  skin  is  loose  and  has  a roughened  cuticle  which  is  puck- 
ered into  transverse  wrinkles  when  the  forearm  is  extended. 

At  the  bend  of  the  elbow  the  superficial  veins  can  usually  be  distinguished 
through  the  integument  if- there  is  not  much  fat.  They  often  present  an 
M-shaped  appearance. 


78 


ylna/omr  in  ifs  RelaUon  to  Art. 


In  consequence  of  the  obliquity  of  the  trochlear  surface  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  humerus  when  the  elbow  is  extended  and  the  hand  supinated,  the 
forearm  diverges  from  the  line  of  the  arm  at  an  angle  of  about  ten  degrees. 
(Plate  39.)  A line  drawn  through  the  condyles  will  form  a right  angle  with 
the  axis  of  the  arm,  but  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  axis  of  the  forearm.  This 
explains  why  in  flexion  the  forearm  inclines  inward  so  that  the  hand  is  brought 
to  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  and  also  why  it  is  not  possible  for  the  hand 
to  be  placed  flat  upon  the  shoulder  of  tiie  same  side. 

The  mnsclcs  of  the  forearm  are  arranged  in  two  groups — an  anterior  group 
consisting  of  the  flexors  and  pronators,  and  a posterior  group  consisting  of  the 
extensors  and  supinators.  Each  group  further  consists  of  two  layers,  super- 
ficial and  deep. 

The  superficial  layer  of  the  anterior  group  of  muscles  of  the  forearm 
comprises  five  muscles  w'hich,  from  within  outward,  are  the  pronator  radii  teres, 
the  flexor  carpi  radialis,  the  palmaris  longus,  the  flexor  sublimis  digitorum,  and 
the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris. 

The  pronator  radii  teres  muscle  (the  round  pronator  of  the  radius)  (Plate  45, 
Fig.  1 ) arises  by  two  portions,  one  from  the  internal  condyle,  and  another 
from  the  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna,  'fhe  fibres  pass  obliquely  to  be  inserted 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the  radius. 

Action  of  the  pronator  radii  teres  muscle. — It  serves  to  rotate  tlie  radius 
on  the  ulna  (Plates  47  and  48),  acting  in  conjunction  with  the  pronator 
quadratus. 

The  flexor  carpi  radialis  muscle  (the  radial  flexor  of  the  wrist)  (Plate  45, 
Fig.  2)  arises  from  the  internal  condyle,  and  its  fibres  terminate  about  the 
middle  of  the  forearm  in  a long  tendon,  which  is  inserted  into  the  base  of 
the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger. 

Action  of  the  flexor  carpi  radialis  muscle. — Its  function  is  to  flex  the 
wrist  and  adduct  the  hand,  or,  acting  from  below,  it  may  assist  in  flexing 
the  elbow. 

The  palmaris  lonyus  muscle  (the  long  flexor  of  the  palm)  (Plate  50,  Figs. 
I and  2)  is  occasionally  absent.  When  present  its  fleshy  part  is  always  small 


79 


Anatomv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

and  lias  a long,  slender  tendon,  which  descends  along  the  middle  of  the 
forearm  to  the  wrist,  where  it  blends  with  the  fascia  of  the  palm  of  the 
hand  (Plate  50,  Fig.  2). 

The  flexor  carpi  iiinaris  muscle  (the  ulna  flexor  of  the  wrist)  (Plate  45, 
Fig.  3)  arises  from  the  internal  condyle  and  the  olecranon,  and  from  the 
upper  two-thirds  of  the  ulna  and  its  tendon  is  attached  to  the  pisiform  bone. 

Action  of  the  flexor  carpi  iilnaris  muscle. — Its  function  is  to  flex  and  adduct 
the  wrist. 

The  flexor  subliniis  digitorum  muscle  (the  superficial  flexor  of  the  fingers), 
(Plate  46,  Fig.  1)  lies  under  the  other  superllcial  muscles.  It  arises  from  the 
internal  condyle  of  the  humerus  from  the  inner  side  of  the  coronoid  process 
and  adjacent  upper  part  of  the  radius,  and  its  hbres  combine  into  one  fleshy 
mass,  from  which  are  given  off  four  tendons  arranged  in  two  superposed 
pairs.  The  superficial  pair  of  tendons  are  continued  to  the  middle  and  ring 
fingers,  while  the  deeper  pair  go  to  the  index  and  little  fingers.  Each  of  the 
tendons,  in  relation  to  the  meta-carpal  phalangeal  joint  (knuckle  joint)  of  its 
special  finger,  divides  into  two  lateral  slips  (Plate  46,  Fig.  i),  which'  diverge 
at  the  middle  of  the  first  phalanx,  so  as  to  allow  the  corresponding  tendon 
of  the  flexor  profundus  muscle  (deep  flexor)  to  pass  between  them.  The 
lateral  slips  of  the  superficial  tendons  are  inserted  at  the  sides  of  the  second 
phalanges. 

Action  of  the  flexor  sublimus  muscle. — Its  function  is  to  flex  the  second 
joints  of  the  fingers. 

The  deep  layer  of  the  anterior  group  of  muscles  of  the  forearm  are  the 
flexor  profundus,  the  flexor  longus  pollicis  and  the  pronator  quadratus. 

Tile  flexor  profundus  digitorum  muscle  (deep  flexor  of  the  fingers)  (Plate 
46,  Fig.  2)  arises  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  ulna  and  from  the  inter- 
osseous membrane,  and  is  arranged  in  two  fleshy  portions,  the  outer  of  which 
passes  directly  to  the  index  finger,  being  inserted  at  the  base  of  the  ungual 
phalanx.  The  inner  portion  divides  into  three  flat  tendons  which  are  respect- 
ively inserted  at  the  bases  of  the  ungual  phalanges  of  the  three  other  lingers. 
At  the  middle  of  the  first  phalanges  the  deep  tendons  perforate  the  superficial 
tendons  as  abov'e  described. 


80 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

Action  of  the  flexor  profundus  muscle.  — \is  function  is  to  flex  the  finger 
tips.  (Plate  50.) 

The  flexor  longns  pollicis  muscle  (the  long  flexor  of  the  thumb)  (Plate  45, 
Fig.  4)  ai  ises  from  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft  of  the  radius  and  the  adjacent 
part  of  the  interosseous  membrane,  and  its  tendon  is  inserted  into  the  base  of 
the  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

Action  of  the  flexor  lon^^us  pollicis  muscle. — Its  action  is  to  strongly  flex 
the  thumb. 

The  pronator  quadratus  muscle  (the  square  pronator)  (Plate  45,  Fig.  i)  is 
a square-shaped  muscle  arising  from  the  lower  fourth  of  the  ulna,  and  pass- 
ing to  be  inserted  upon  the  lower  fourth  of  the  radius  on  its  anterior  surface 
and  outer  border. 

Action  of  the  pronator  quadratus  muscle.— Ms  function  is  to  pronate  the 
radius  in  conjunction  with  the  pronator  teres  muscle. 

There  are  seven  muscles  of  the  superficial  layer  of  the  posterior  group  of 
the  forearm  which  are  arranged  from  the  radial  to  the  ulnar  border  in  the 
following  order;  The  supinator  radii  longus,  the  extensor  carpi  radialis  longior, 
the  extensor  carpi  radialis  brevior,  the  extensor  communis  digitorum,  the  exten- 
sor minimi  digiti,  the  extensor  carpi  ulnaris,  and  the  anconeus. 

The  supinator  radii  longus  muscle  (the  long  supinator  of  the  radius)  (Plate 
45,  Fig.  2)  is  the  most  external  of  the  muscles  of  tire  radial  side  of  the  fore- 
arm. It  arises  from  the  external  condyle  and  terminates  about  the  middle  of 
the  forearm  in  a flat  tendon  which  is  inserted  at  the  outer  side  of  the  base 
of  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

Action  of  the  supinator  longus  muscle.— M acts  as  a supinator  upon  the 
wrist,  but  also  aids  the  anterior  muscles  in  flexing  the  forearm. 

The  extensor  carpi  radialis  longior  muscle  (the  longer  radial  extensor 
of  the  wrist)  (Plate  46)  arises  from  the  external  condyle,  and  its  tendon  is 
inserted  on  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger  at  its  outer  and  upper 
side. 

The  extensor  carpi  radialis  brevior  muscle  (the  shorter  radial  extensor  of 
the  wrist)  (Plate  46,  Fig.  3)  arises  with  the  preceding  muscle  from  the  external 

81 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

condyle,  and  its  tendon  is  inserted  at  the  radial  side  of  the  base  of  the  meta- 
carpal bone  of  the  middle  finger. 

Action  of  the  extensor  longior  and  brevior  muscles. — The  function  of  the 
above  two  muscles  is  to  extend  the  wrist. 

The  exlensor  communis  digitorum  muscle  (the  common  extensor  of  the 
fingers)  (Plate  44,  Fig.  2)  arises  from  the  external  condyle,  and  divides  on 
the  back  of  the  forearm  into  three  portions  which  are  distributed  by  four  ten  - 
dons (two  from  the  inner  portion)  to  the  fingers.  At  the  back  of  the  hand  the 
tendons  of  the  extensor  communis  diverge  from  one  another  at  the  knuckle 
joints  (Plate  49,  Fig.  i)  where  they  give  off  lateral  expansions  to  the  sides  of 
those  joints.  The  two  middle  tendons  generally  pass  over  the  two  middle 
meta-carpal  bones,  while  the  tendons  of  the  index  finger  pass  obliquely 
across  the  space  between  the  first  and  second  meta-carpal  bones,  and  the 
tendons  of  the  little  finger  continue  in  close  relation  to  that  of  the  ring 
finger  as  far  as  the  meta-carpal  phalangeal  joint,  where  it  diverges  abruptly 
to  pass  to  its  insertion.  These  tendons  are  often  connected  by  accessory 
slips  (vincula)  above  the  knuckle  joints.  They  are  subject  to  great  variety. 
The  tendon  of  the  index  finger  is  usually  free.  On  the  back  of  each  finger, 
after  giving  off  the  lateral  slips  at  the  knuckle  joints,  the  tendons  extend 
along  the  fingers  to  the  ungual  phalanges. 

Action  of  the  extensor  communis  digitorum  muscle.  — Not  only  is  the 
function  of  this  muscle  to  act  as  a general  extensor  of  the  fingers,  but  it 
can  also  act  so  as  to  extend  the  first  phalanges  while  the  second  and  third 
are  flexed,  and  to  extend  the  second  and  third  phalanges  while  the  first  is 
flexed. 

The  exlensor  minimi  digiti  muscle  (the  extensor  of  the  little  finger)  (Plate 
49,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  external  condyle,  and  is  a long  slender  muscle, 
the  tendon  of  which  passes  in  close  relation  with  the  tendons  of  the  common 
extensor,  and  on  the  back  of  the  hand  it  divides  into  two  slips  which  pass 
to  the  little  finger. 

Action  of  the  extensor  minimi  digiti  muscle. — Its  special  function  is  to 
extend  the  little  finger  independently. 

The  extensor  carpi  tilnaris  muscle  (the  ulnar  extensor  of  the  wrist) 
(Plate  46,  Fig.  3)  arises  from  the  external  condyle  and  from  the  posterior 

82 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


border  of  the  ulna  and  its  tendon,  which  is  strong  and  broad,  is  inserted  into 
the  under  side  of  the  base  of  the  rneta-carpal  bone  of  the  little  linger. 

Action  of  the  extensor  nlnaris  muscle. — Its  function  is  to  extend  the  hand 
toward  the  ulnar  side. 

The  anconeus  muscle  (the  elbow  muscle)  (Plate  46,  Fig.  4)  is  at  the  back 
of  the  elbow  and  is  practically  a continuation  of  the  triceps  muscle  of  the  arm. 
It  arises  from  the  back  of  the  external  condyle  and  the  capsule  of  the  elbow 
joint  and  is  inserted  into  the  upper  fourth  of  the  ulna,  which  it  assists  in 
extending. 

The  muscles  of  the  deep  layer  of  the  posterior  group  of  the  forearm  are 
the  supinator  radii  brevis,  the  three  extensor  muscles  of  the  thumb,  and  the 
extensor  indicis. 

The  supinator  radii  brevis  muscles  (the  short  radial  supinator)  (Plate  46, 
Fig.  4)  arises  beneath  the  other  extensor  muscles  at  the  external  condyle 
and  the  orbicular  ligament  at  the  neck  of  the  radius  (page  72)  and  from  the 
adjacent  portion  of  the  ulna.  Its  tendon  is  inserted  into  the  radius  between 
the  bicipital  tubercle  and  the  attachment  of  the  pronator  teres  muscle.  It  is 
a supinator  of  the  radius. 

The  three  extensor  muscles  of  the  thumb  (Plate  46,  Fig.  4)  arise  from  the 
upper  parts  of  the  shafts  of  the  radius  and  ulna,  and  from  the  interosseous 
membrane,  and  are  inserted  respectively  into  the  base  of  the  meta-carpal  bone 
of  the  thumb  at  its  joint  with  the  trapezium,  the  base  of  the  first  phalanx 
of  the  thumb  and  the  base  of  the  ungual  phalanx.  The  tendons  are  of 
great  interest,  as  the  thumb  is  the  chief  feature  of  the  expression  of  the 
hand.  The  tendon  inserted  at  the  base  of  the  first  phalanx  is  peculiar  to 
the  human  hand. 

Action  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  thumb. — These  muscles  severally 
extend  the  portion  of  the  thumb  to  which  they  are  attached.  They  can  be 
readily  distinguished  through  the  skin. 

The  extensor  indicis  muscle  (the  extensor  of  the  index  finger)  (Plate  46, 
Fig.  4)  arises  from  the  back  of  the  ulna  and  the  interosseous  membrane,  and  is 
inserted  with  the  tendon  of  the  common  extensor  at  the  meiacarpo-phalangeal 
joint  of  the  index  finger. 


83 


Anatomv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


Action  of  the  extensor  indicts  innscle. — It  enables  the  index  finger  to  be 
extended  independently,  and  is  used  in  pointing.  (Plate  5(),  Fig.  4.) 

The  spaces  between  the  meta-carpal  bones  are  occupied  by  the  interosseous 
muscles  of  the  hand  (Plate  49,  Figs,  i and  3),  which  are  arranged  in  two  sets, 
palmar  and  dorsal.  There  are  tliree  palmar  interosseous  muscles.  The  first  arises 
from  the  base  and  front  of  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger  and  is 
inserted  into  the  ulnar  side  of  the  three  phalanges  belonging  to  that  finger. 
The  second  arises  from  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  ring  finger  and  is  inserted 
into  the  radial  side  of  its  phalanges.  The  third  arises  from  the  meta-carpal 
bone  of  the  little  finger  and  is  inserted  into  the  radial  side  of  its  phal- 
anges. There  are  four  dorsal  interosseous  muscles.  The  first  arises  from  the 
ulnar  side  of  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb  and  the  adjacent  side  of 
the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger  and  is  inserted  into  the  radial  side 
of  its  phalanges.  The  second  arises  from  the  adjacent  side  of  the  meta- 
carpal bones  of  the  index  and  middle  fingers  and  is  inserted  into  the  radial 
side  of  the  phalanges  of  the  middle  finger.  The  third  arises  from  the 
adjacent  sides  of  the  meta-carpal  bones  of  the  middle  and  ring  fingers,  and 

A. 

is  inserted  into  the  ulnar  side  of  the  phalanges  of  the  middle  linger.  The 
fourth  arises  from  the  adjacent  sides  of  the  meta-carpal  bones  of  the  ring 
and  little  fingers  and  is  inserted  into  the  ulnar  side  of  the  phalanges  of  the 
ring  finger. 

Action  of  the  interosseous  muscles. — The  general  function  of  the  palmar  set 
is  to  adduct  the  lingers  toward  the  middle  line  of  the  middle  finger ; while  that 
of  the  dorsal  set  is  to  abduct  the  fingers  from  that  line.  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  each  finger  is  provided  with  an  aponenrolic  sheath,  beginning  at  the 
knuckle  joints,  where  the  common  extensor  tendons  split  into  lateral  expan- 
sions, and  extending  over  the  entire  skeleton  of  each  finger.  It  is  into  this 
sheath  that  the  tendons  of  the  interossii  muscles  are  inserted,  rather  than  into 
the  bones,  at  the  several  points  above  indicated. 

Besides  the  interosseous  muscles  there  are  four  other  small  muscles  called 
the  lumbricales,  resembling  earth-worms.  They  arise  from  the  deep  Ilexor 
tendons  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  (Plate  49,  Fig.  ^),  and  are  inserted  into  the 
sheaths  of  each  of  the  fingers  on  their  radial  side. 

84 


Atutomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


Action  — Their  function  is  to  flex  the  knuckle  joints,  but  they  can  assist  the 
action  of  the  extensor  tendons  in  maintaining  the  extension  of  the  joints 
between  the  phalanges.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  meta-carpal-phalangeal 
joints  are  capable  of  being  Hexed  so  that  the  fingers  may  be  brought  into 
the  hollow  of  the  palm,  thus  forming  the  fist,  while  the  prominences  of  the 
bones  at  the  joints  are  the  knuckles.  Of  these  the  knuckle  of  the  middle 
t'liiger  is  always  the  most  prominent,  and,  as  it  is  a distinguishing  feature  of 
the  hand,  it  should  be  especially  noted,  as  it  is  a landmark.  Its  proper  repre- 
sentation by  the  artist  gives  character  and  expression  to  the  individual  hand. 
The  fingers  can  be  extended  only  very  little  beyond  the  plane  of  the  metacarpus, 
but  they  can  be  readily  moved  laterally. 

The  joint  of  the  thumb,  between  the  meta-carpal  bone  and  the  trapezium, 
enables  it  to  be  opposed  to  all  the  lingers.  Besides  the  special  flexor  (page  8o) 
and  extensor  (page  83)  muscles  of  the  thumb,  there  are  others  which  con- 
stitute the  ball  of  the  t/iiiinb. 

The  abductor  poll  ids  ninscle  (abductor  of  the  thumb)  (Plate  48,  Fig.  3) 
arises  from  the  trapezium  and  is  inserted  into  the  outer  side  of  the  first 
phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

Action  of  the  abdnclor  pollicis  ninscle. — Its  action  draws  the  thumb  away 
from  the  rest  of  the  hand. 

The  opponens  pollicis  ninscle  (opposing  muscle  of  the  thumb)  (Plate  48, 
Fig.  2)  arises  beneath  the  abductor,  also  from  the  trapezium,  and  is  inserted 
into  the  radial  border  of  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

Action  of  the  opponens  pollicis  muscle. — Its  action  is  to  bring  the  thumb 
forcibly  in  opposition  with  all  the  fingers. 

The  flexor  brevis  pollicis  (short  flexor  of  the  thumb)  (Plate  48,  Fig.  2) 
arises  by  two  portions,  one  from  the  trapezium,  and  the  other  from  the 
meta-carpal  bones  of  the  index  and  middle  fingers.  They  are  inserted  into 
the  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

Action  of  the  flexor  brevis  pollicis  muscle. — It  flexes  the  thumb  upon 
the  palm. 

The  adductor  pollicis  muscle  (adductor  of  the  thumb)  (Plate  48,  Fig.  3)  is 
triangular  and  arises  from  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  middle  finger.  It  is 
inserted  into  the  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb,  with  the  preceding  muscle. 

85 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

^Action  of  the  addnctor  pollieis  muscle. — It  aids  by  its  action  the  flexor 
brevis  muscle.  It  further  enables  the  tip  of  the  thumb  to  be  brought  into 
contact  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers.  The  mobility  of  the  thumb,  and  the 
power  which  it  possesses  through  its  many  muscles,  renders  it  one  of  the 
distinguishing,  features  of  the  human  hand. 

The  muscles  of  the  ball  of  the  little  finger  (Plate  48,  Figs.  2 and  resemble 
somewhat  those  of  the  thumb. 

The  abductor  minimi  digiti  muscle  (abductor  of  the  little  finger)  (Plate  48, 
Fig.  2)  arises  from  the  pisiform  bone,  and  is  inserted  into  the  ulnar  side  of 
the  first  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

Ihe  flexor  brevis  minimi  digiti  miiscle  (short  tlexor  of  the  little  finger)  (Plate 
48,  Fig.  ^)  is  really  a part  of  the  above. 

Action  of  the  flexor  brevis  minimi  digiti  muscle. — It  acts  in  drawing  the 
little  finger  away  from  the  rest  of  the  hand. 

The  opponens  minimi  digiti  muscle  (opposing  muscle  of  the  little  finger) 
(Plate  48,  Fig.  3)  arises  beneath  the  flexor  brevis  from  the  unciform  bone, 
and  is  inserted  on  the  ulnar  side  of  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  little 
finger. 

Action  of  the  opponens  minimi  digiti  muscle. — It  draws  the  little  finger  upon 
the  palm  so  as  to  strengthen  the  power  of  grasping. 

The  surface  markings  of  the  wrist  and  hand  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. The  position  of  all  the  prominences  of  the  skeleton  of  this  region 

should  be  noticed  in  extension  and  flexion,  as  well  as  in  supination  and 

pronation  (Plate  47).  The  lower  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna  can  be  readily 
defined  because  they  are  to  a great  extent  superficial.  The  styloid  process 

of  the  radius  is  about  half  an  inch  lower  than  the  styloid  process  of  the 

ulna,  and  wiien  the  shafts  of  the  bones  are  parallel,  projects  a little  more 
forward. 


The  annular  ligaments  at  the  wrist  (Plate  49,  Figs,  i and  3)  are  condensations 
of  the  deep  fascia  which  confine  the  tendons  of  the  various  muscles  which 
pass  from  the  forearm  to  the  hand.  The  anterior  is  the  strongest  and  one 
of  the  most  unyielding  fibrous  structures  in  the  body.  Each  tendon  has  a 

86 


Analomv  in  /Is  KeLiiiun  to  Art. 


separate  compartment  as  it  passes  through  the  annular  ligaments,  and  is 
lubricated  by  a synovial  bursa  to  obviate  friction. 

Ihi’  skin  over  the  wrist  is  quite  loose,  thin,  and  free  from  fat.  In  front 
of  the  wrist  the  skin  is  closely  connected  with  the  deep  fascia,  and  is  marked 
by  transverse  tines,  of  which  the  lowest  is  usually  very  distinct,  and  is  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  below  the  wrist  joint  (Plates  '^>2  and  58).  These 
lines  are  caused  by  the  flexion  of  the  wrist  joint. 

The  skill  over  the  back  of  the  hand  is  very  fine,  and  loosely  attached  to  the 
deep  fascia.  The  superficial  veins  over  the  back  of  the  hand  should  be  noted 
by  the  artist,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  hands  of  old  people.  There  is 
much  diversity  in  the  arrangement  of  these  veins,  and  they  are  always  more 
distended  when  the  hands  are  in  a pendant  position. 

'Hie  patin  of  the  hand  presents  a large  prominence  on  the  radial  side  formed 
by  the  muscles  of  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  and  upon  the  ulnar  side  a long  prom- 
inence corresponding  to  the  muscles  of  the  ball  of  the  little  finger.  The  two 
prominences  are  sometimes  called  the  heel  of  the  hand.  Between  them  there  is 
a depression  which  broadens  toward  the  fingers,  and  when  the  latter  are  flexed, 
forms  the  hollow  of  the  hand.  The  skin  of  the  palm  is  attached  to  the  deep 
fascia  along  the  many  lines  of  flexion,  three  of  which  are  especially  noteworthy. 
The  first  line  curving  around  the  base  of  the  ball  of  the  thumb  is  caused  by 
the  constant  flexion  of  the  thumb  {tinea  vitalis,  line  of  life)  (Plate  52,  Fig.  i). 
The  second  line  extends  across  the  palm  from  the  knuckle  joint  of  the  index 
finger  to  about  the  middle  of  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  little  finger,  and  is 
caused  by  the  apposition  of  the  thumb  with  the  index  and  middle  fingers 
{liiiea  cephalica,  line  of  the  head)  (Plate  52,  Fig.  i).  The  third  line  com- 
mences at  the  space  opposite  the  knuckle  joints  of  the  index  and  middle 
fingers,  and  extends  obliquely  to  the  ulnar  border  of  the  hand.  It  is  caused 
by  the  flexion  of  the  middle,  ring  and  little  fingers  {tinea  mensalis,  line  of  the 
mind),  (Plate  52,  Fig.  i).  There  is  also  another  line,  less  conspicuous,  which 
takes  a vertical  course  over  the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  middle  finger  {tinea 
hepatica,  line  of  the  liver),  (Plate  52,  Fig.  i).  When  all  these  lines  are  distinct 
they  present  the  form  of  the  letter  M.  The  palmar  surface  at  the  bases  of 
the  fingers  is  marked  by  transverse  flexion  folds  which  are  single  for  the 

87 


^hutomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

index  and  little  fingers,  and  double  for  the  middle  and  ring  fngers.  There 
are  similar  folds  produced  by  the  fexion  of  the  joints  between  the  phalanges, 
the  frst  of  which  is  double  and  the  second  usually  single  for  each  fnger 
(Plate  52,  Fig.  i).  The  thumb  is  provided  with  two  folds  corresponding  to 
its  two  joints. 

The  cuticle  of  the  palms  of  the  hands  varies  in  thickness  mainly  according 
to  the  uses  to  which  the  hands  are  put. 

The  nails  are  horny  plates  surmounting  the  fnger  tips  upon  their  dorsal 
• , surfaces.  The  part  of  each  nail  where  it  is  protected  by  the  skin  is  very 
thin,  and  appears  white  and  opaque,  and  owing  to  its  crescent  shape  it  is 
called  fie  Innnla  (Plate  52,  Figs.  2,  3,  4,  and  Plate  53).  The  latter  is  always 
more  pronounced  in  the  thumb  than  in  the  fngers.  The  nails  vary  in 
different  individuals. 

The  general  form  of  the  hand  depends  upon  the  skeleton,  but  especially  is 
this  nofceable  on  the  back  or  dorsal  surface;  the  palmar  surface  of  the  bones 
being  covered  by  the  tendons  and  interosseous  muscles  so  that  they  are  con- 
cealed. On  the  back  of  the  hand  there  are  only  the  extensor  tendons  going  to 
the  backs  of  the  fngers,  and  these  should  be  closely  observed  as  in  the  various 
actions  of  the  fngers  they  come  more  or  less  into  relief  and  contribute  much  to 
the  character  of  the  individual  hand.  There  is  usually  more  fat  on  the  backs  of 
the  hands  of  women  and  children  than  of  men,  whicfi  masks  the  outlines  of  the 
tendons. 


88 


PLATE  38. 


Fig.  I.  The  right  scapula  (front). 

1.  The  acromion  process. 

2.  The  coracoid  process. 

3.  The  glenoid  fossa. 

4 The  neck. 

5.  The  venter. 

6.  The  axilary  border. 

7.  The  inferior  angle. 

8.  The  notch. 

9.  The  superior  angle. 

10.  The  vertebral  border. 

Fig-  2.  The  right  scapula  (side). 

1.  The  acromion  process. 

2.  The  glenoid  fossa. 

3.  The  dorsum. 

4.  The  coracoid  process. 

Fig.  3.  The  right  scapula  (back). 

1.  The  superior  angle. 

2.  The  supra-spinous  fossa. 

3.  The  spinous  process. 

4.  The  infra-spinous  process. 

3.  The  acromion  process. 

6.  The  glenoid  fossa. 

7.  The  dorsum. 

Fig.  4.  The  right  clavicle  (front). 

1.  The  Acromial  end. 

2.  The  sternal  end. 

Fig.  5.  The  right  clavicle  ( from  above). 

1.  The  acromial  end. 

2.  The  sternal  end. 

Fig.  6.  The  right  humerus  (front). 

1.  The  external  tuberosity. 

2.  The  bicipital  groove. 

3.  The  cylindrical  portion  of  the  shaft. 

4.  The  prismoid  portion  of  the  shaft. 

5.  The  depression  for  the  coronoid  process 

of  the  ulna. 

6.  The  external  condyle. 

7.  The  trochlear  surface. 

8.  The  trochlear  eminence. 

9.  The  head. 


Fig.  6— continued. 

' 10.  The  neck. 

^ II.  The  anterior  tuberosity. 

12.  The  internal  condyle. 

I Fig.  7.  The  right  humerus  (back). 

\ I.  The  head. 

' 2.  The  neck. 

3.  The  cylindrical  portion  of  the  shaft. 

4.  The  prismoid  portion  of  the  shaft. 

5.  The  internal  condyle. 

6.  The  trochlear  eminence. 

7.  The  trochlear  surface. 

' 8.  The  external  tuberosity. 

I 9.  The  depression  for  the  olecranon  process 
of  the  ulna. 

10.  The  external  condyle. 

Fig.  8.  The  right  humerus  (outer  side). 

1.  The  head. 

2.  The  external  tuberosity. 

3.  The  prismoid  portion  of  the  shaft. 

4.  The  external  condyle. 

5.  The  neck. 

6.  The  trochlear  surface. 

Fig.  9.  The  right  humerus  (inner  side). 

1.  The  head. 

2.  The  anterior  tuberosity. 

3.  The  trochlear. 

4.  The  neck. 

5.  The  prismoid  portion  of  the  shaft. 

6.  The  internal  condyle. 

Fig.  to.  The  sternum  (front). 

1.  The  notch  for  the  right  clavicle. 

2.  The  notch  for  the  cartilage  of  the  first  rib. 

3.  The  manubrium. 

4.  The  joint  between  the  manubrium  and 
the  gladiolus. 

5.  The  gladiolus. 

6.  The  enciform  cartilage. 

7.  The  notch  for  the  left  clavicle. 

8.  The  notch  for  the  cartilage  of  the  first  rib. 

9.  The  notch  for  the  cartilage  of  the  second 
rib. 


(Continued  ) 


i 


'5*=«  • 


V j 


r 


« 


PLATE  38.  ( Continued) 


Fig.  W.  The  sternum  (right  side). 

1 . The  notch  for  the  cartilage  of  the  first  rib. 

2.  riie  manubrium. 

3.  'I'lie  notcli  for  the  cartilage  of  the  second 

rib. 

4.  riie  notch  for  the  cartilage  of  the  third 

rib. 

5.  The  notch  for  the  cartilage  of  the  fourth 

rib. 

6.  'I'he  enciform  cartilage. 

Fig.  t2.  The  first  and  second  cervical  vertebra 
in  apposition. 

1.  The  odontoid  process  of  the  second  cer- 

vical vertebra. 

2.  The  first  or  Atlas  vertebra. 

3.  The  second  cervical  vertebra. 

Fig.  13.  The  fifth  cervical  vertebra. 

1.  The  body. 

2.  The  foramen. 

3.  The  bifid  spine. 


Fig.  14.  The  shoulder  girdle. 

1.  The  acromial  end  of  the  right  clavicle. 

2.  fhe  acromion  process  of  the  right  scapula 

3.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  right  scapula 

4.  Tlie  glenoid  fossa. 

5.  fhe  venter  of  the  scapula. 

6.  The  gladiolus  of  the  sternum. 

7.  The  left  shoulder. 

8.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  left  scapula 

9.  The  glenoid  fossa. 

10.  The  venfer  of  the  left  scapula. 

Fig.  15.  The  pelvic  girdle. 

1 . The  right  ilium. 

2.  The  anterior  spinous  process  of  the  ilium 

3.  The  acetabulum. 

4.  The  symphisis  pubis. 

5.  The  right  ischium. 

C.  The  sacrum. 

7.  The  left  ilium. 

8.  The  anterior  spine  of  the  ilium. 

9.  The  acetabulum. 

10.  The  left  ischium. 


N.  B. — The  above  are  drawings  from  photographs. 


PLATE  39. 


Figf.  I.  The  skeleton  of  the  entire  right  upper 
extrernity,  with  outline  ( from  the 
back).  Drawn  from  a photograph. 

1.  The  superior  angle  of  tlie  scapula. 

2.  The  vertebral  border  of  the  scapula. 

The  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula. 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  humerus. 

The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

6.  The  olecranon  process  of  tne  ulna. 

7.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

8.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

9.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

10.  1 he  cuneiform  bone. 

11.  The  metacarpal  bone  of  the  little  finger. 

12.  The  proximal  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

13.  The  intermediary  phalanx  of  the  little 

finger. 

14.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

15.  The  clavicle. 

16.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

17.  The  head  of  the  humerus. 

18.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

19.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

20.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

21.  The  shaft  of  the  radius. 

22.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

23.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

24.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 


Fig.  2.  The  skeleton  of  the  entire  right  upper 
extremity,  with  outline  {from  the 
front).  Drawn  from  a photograph. 

1.  The  clavicle. 

2.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

3.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

4.  The  external  tuberosity  of  the  humeius. 

5.  The  anterior  tuberosity  of  the  humerus. 
C.  The  shaft  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

8.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

9.  The  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

10.  The  shaft  of  the  radius. 

1 1.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

12.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

13.  The  metacarpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

14.  The  metacarpal  bone  of  the  index  finger. 

15.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

16.  The  proximal  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

17.  The  intermediary  phalanx  of  the  index 

finger. 

18.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

19.  The  upper  end  of  the  ulna. 

20.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

21.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

22.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 


PLATE  39 


<o 


PLATE  40. 


Figf.  i.  Diagfram  of  the  muscles  of  the  right 
upper  extremity  i fi'om  the  back). 

1.  The  supra  spinatis  muscle. 

2.  The  infra  spinatis  muscle. 

3.  The  teres  major  muscle. 

4.  The  teres  minor  muscle. 

5.  The  triceps  muscle. 

6.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  e.xtensor  carpi  ulnaris  muscle. 

8.  The  e.xtensor  minimi  digiti  muscle. 

9.  The  tendons  of  the  communis  digitorum 

muscle. 

10.  The  deltoid  muscle. 

1 1 . The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

12.  The  tendon  of  the  triceps  muscle. 

13.  The  extensor  communis  digitorum  muscle. 

14.  The  tendons  of  the  extensor  muscles  of 

the  thumb. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  right 
upper  extremity  ( from  the  front). 

1.  The  deltoid  muscle. 

2.  The  brachialis  anticus  muscle. 

3.  The  biceps  muscle. 

4.  The  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle. 

5.  The  supinator  longus  muscle. 

6.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

muscle. 

7.  The  pectoralis  major  muscle. 

8.  The  brachialis  anticus  muscle. 

Q.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

10.  The  flexor  sublimis  digitorum  muscle. 

11.  The  flexor  carpi  ulnaris  muscle. 

12.  The  tendons  of  the  flexor  sublimis  digit- 

orum muscle. 


PLATE  40 


ik 


PLATE  41. 


Fig.  t.  The  muscles  of  the  right  scapula. 

1.  The  first  rib. 

2.  The  clavicle. 

3.  The  supra  spinatus  muscle. 

4.  The  infra  spinatus  muscle. 

5.  The  teres  minor  muscle. 

6.  The  teres  major  muscle. 

7.  The  eighth  rib. 

8.  The  ninth  rib. 

Fig.  2.  The  right  deltoid  muscle  ( from  the 
bach). 

1.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  deltoid  mus- 

cle. 

2.  The  insertion  of  the  deltoid  muscle. 


Fig.  3.  The  right  deltoid  muscle  ( from  the 
outer  side). 

1.  The  first  rib. 

2.  The  second  rib. 

3.  The  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula. 

4.  The  clavicle. 

5.  The  acromion  process  of  the  scapula. 

6.  The  deltoid  muscle. 

7.  The  insertion  of  the  deltoid  muscle. 

Fig.  4.  The  right  deltoid  muscle  ( from  the 
front) . 

1.  The  clavicle. 

2.  The  position  of  the  coracoid  process  of 

the  scapula. 

3.  The  front  portion  of  the  deltoid  muscle. 

4.  The  insertion  of  the  deltoid  muscle. 

5.  The  seventh  rib. 


PLATE  41 


PLATE  42. 


I.  Photograph  of  a man  with  the  right 
arm  extended  holding  a_  heavy  dumb- 
bell, showing  the  surface  markings 

{from  the  front). 


Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a man  in  same  position 
as  Fig.  I,  showing  the  surface  mark- 
jugs  ( from  the  buck). 


PLATE  43. 


Fig;,  i.  Diagram  of  the  skeleton  of  the  trunk, 
with  the  right  arm,  showing  the  at- 
tachments of  the  biceps  muscle,  the 
quadratus  lumborum,  gluteus  minimis 
and  pyriformis  muscles, 

1.  The  first  rib. 

2.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

3.  The  long  or  glenoid  head  of  the  biceps 

muscle. 

4.  The  short  or  coracoid  head  of  the  biceps 

muscle. 

5.  The  biceps  muscle. 

6.  The  twelfth  rib. 

7.  The  quadratus  lumborum  muscle. 

8.  The  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle. 

9 The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

10.  The  gluteus  minimis  muscle. 

11.  The  pyriformis  muscle. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  the  attachments  of 
the  brachialis  anticus  muscle  and  the 
ilio-psoas  muscle. 

1.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

2.  The  bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus. 

3.  The  origins  of  the  brachialis  anticus 

muscle. 

4.  The  brachialis  anticus  muscle. 

5.  The  psoas  muscle. 

6.  The  insertion  of  the  brachialis  anticus 

muscle. 

7.  The  iliacus  muscle. 

8.  The  insertion  of  the  ilio-psoas  muscle. 


PLATE  43 


\ 


ft  10  • 


PLATE  44. 


Figf.  t.  Diagram  of  the  fight  side  of  the  trunk 
showing  the  attachments  of  the  triceps 
muscle  and  the  quadratus  lumborum, 
the  gluteus  medius,  the  pyriformis,  two 
gemelli  and  quadratus  femoris  muscles. 

1.  The  outer  head  of  the  triceps  muscle. 

2.  The  middle  head  of  the  triceps  muscle. 

3.  The  inner  head  of  the  triceps  muscle. 

4.  The  quadratus  lumborum  muscle. 

5.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

6.  The  tendon  of  the  triceps  muscle. 

7.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

8.  The  gluteus  medius  muscle. 

9.  The  pyriformis  muscle. 

10.  The  gemelli  muscles. 

11.  The  quadratus  muscle. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  fore-arm  and  hand 
showing  the  extensor  communis  digi- 
torum  muscle. 

1.  The  extensor  profundus  muscle. 

2.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

3.  The  extensor  tendons  of  the  little  finger. 

4.  The  extensor  tendons  of  the  index  finger. 

5.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

6.  The  superficial  extensor  muscles  of  the 

fingers. 

7.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

8.  The  extensor  tendons  passing  over  the 

wrist  joint. 


PLATE  44 


PLATE  45. 


Diagframs  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  fore-arm  and  hand  with  the 
muscles  of  the  forearm  superposed. 


Fig.  J.  The  two  pronator  muscles. 

1.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  pronator  radii  teres  muscle. 

3.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  radius. 

5.  The  pronator  quadratus  muscle. 

6.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

7.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

8.  The  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

Q.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

10.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

11.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

Fig.  2.  The  long  supinator  muscle. 

1.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

3.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  supinator  longus  muscle. 

5.  The  attachment  of  the  tendon  of  the  su- 

pinator longus  muscle. 

6.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

8.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

9.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 


Fig.  3.  The  two  flexor  muscles  of  the  wrist. 

1.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

3.  The  flexor  carpi  radialis  muscle. 

4.  The  styloid  process  of  the  muscle. 

5.  The  attachment  of  the  tendons  of  the 

flexor  carpi  radialis. 

6.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

8.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

9.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

Fig.  4.  The  long  flexor  muscle  of  the  thumb. 

1.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

3.  The  flexor  longus  pollicis  muscle. 

4.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

muscle. 

5.  The  attachment  of  the  tendon  of  the 

flexor  longus  pollicis  muscle. 

6.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  coracoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

8.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

9.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 


PLATE  45 


PLATE  46. 


Diagframs  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  fore-arm  and  hand  with  the  muscles  superposed. 


Fig.  I.  The  superficial  flexor  muscle  of  the 
fingers. 

1.  Tlie  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

3.  The  flexor  sublimis  digitorum  muscle. 

4.  The  tendons  of  the  flexor  sublimis  pass- 

ing over  the  carpus. 

5.  The  splitting  of  the  tendon  at  the  first 

phalanx  of  the  index. 

6.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  coronoid  process  of  the  humerus. 

8.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

g.  The  splitting  of  the  tendons  on  the  first 
phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

Fig.  2.  The  deep  flexor  muscle  of  the  fingers. 

1.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  head  of  the  radius. 

3.  The  bicipital  tubercle  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  flexor  profundus  digitorum  muscle. 

3.  The  tendons  of  the  flexor  profundus  pass- 
ing over  the  carpus. 

6.  The  attachment  of  the  deep  tendon  on 

the  ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

7.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

8.  The  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

9.  The  attachment  of  the  deep  tendon  over 

the  ungual  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

Fig.  3.  The  three  extensor  muscles  of  the  wrist. 

1.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  extensor  carpi  ulnaris  muscle. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 


Fig.  3 — continued. 

4.  The  attachment  of  the  tendon  of  the  ex- 

tensor carpi  ulnaris  muscle. 

5.  The  attachment  of  the  tendon  of  the  ex- 

tensor carpi  radialis  muscle. 

6.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

7.  The  position  of  the  head  of  the  radius. 

8.  The  extensor  carpi  radialis  longior  muscle, 
g.  The  extensor  carpi  radialis  brevior  muscle. 

10.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

11.  The  attachment  of  the  tendon  of  the  ex- 

tensor carpi  radialis  longior  muscle. 

Fig.  4.  The  extensor  muscle  of  the  index  finger 
and  the  three  extensor  muscles  of  the 
thumb. 

1.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  olecranon  process  of  the  ulna. 

3.  The  extensor  indicis  muscle. 

4.  The  extensor  primi  internodii  pollicis 

muscle. 

5.  The  external  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

6.  The  spinator  radii  brevis  muscle. 

7.  The  extensor  ossi  metacarpi  pollicis 

muscle. 

8.  The  extensor  secundi  internodii  pollicis 

muscle. 

9.  The  attachment  of  the  extensor  ossis 

metacarpi  pollicis  muscle. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  primi  inter- 

nodii pollicis  muscle. 

11.  The  attachment  of  the  extensor  secundi 

internodii  pollicis  muscle. 


PLATE  46 


PLATE  47. 


Diagrams  of  the  skeleton  of  the  fore-arm  and  hand  in  various  degrees 
of  pronation  (from  photographs). 


Fig.  t.  The  radius  twisted  over  the  ulna  in  pro- 
nation {from  the  back). 

1.  The  cuneiform  bone. 

2.  The  unciform  bone. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 

4.  The  trapezium. 

5.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

6.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

Fig.  2.  The  bones  in  same  relative  position  as 

in  Fig.  \ { from  the  inner  side) . 

1 . The  os  magnum. 

2.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

3.  riie  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 


Fig.  3.  The  radius  twisted  over  the  ulna  in  pro- 
nation, the  index  finger  extended  as 
in  pointing  {from  the  inner  side) . 

1.  The  trapezium. 

2.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

Fig.  4.  The  bones  in  the  same  relative  position 
as  in  Fig.  \ {from  the  palmar  surface). 

1.  The  os  magnum. 

2.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  pisiform  bone. 

5.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 


PLATE  47 


i 


....  '. 


PLATE  48. 


Fig.  I.  Skeleton  of  the  rigfht  fore-arm  and  hand 
{from  the  back)  with  the  index  finger 
pointing  i from  photograph), 

1.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

2.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

3.  The  os  magnum. 

4.  The  knuckle  joint  of  the  middle  finger. 

5.  The  e.xternal  condyle  of  the  humerus. 

6.  The  shaft  of  the  radius. 

7.  the  joint  between  the  trapezium  and 

metacarpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

Fig.  2.  The  palmar  surface  of  the  skeleton  of 
the  right  hand,  showing  the  abductor 
and  adductor  muscles  of  the  thumb 
and  abductor  muscle  of  the  little  finger.  J 

1.  The  abductor  pollicis  muscle.  j 

2.  The  adductor  pollicis  muscle.  ! 

3.  The  semi-lunar  bone.  j 

4.  The  abductor  minimi  digiti  muscle.  * 

Fig.  3.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  hand,  show- 
ing the  opponens  muscles  of  the  thumb 
and  little  finger. 

1.  The  opponens  pollicis  muscle. 

2.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

3.  The  opponens  minimi  digiti  muscle. 


Fig.  4.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  hand,  show- 
ing the  three  palmar  interosseii  mus- 
cles. 

1.  The  trapezium. 

2.  The  proximal  digital  bone  of  the  thumb. 

3.  The  palmar  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

index  finger. 

4.  The  palmar  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

ring  finger. 

5.  The  unciform  bone. 

6.  The  palmar  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

little  finger. 

Fig.  5.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  hand,  showing 
the  four  dorsal  interosseous  muscles. 

1.  The  unciform  bone. 

2.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

ring  finger. 

3.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

ulnar  side  of  the  middle  finger. 

4.  The  trapezium. 

5 The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the  - 
radial  side  of  the  middle  linger. 

6.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the 
index  finger. 


PLATE  48 


PLATE  49. 


Fig^.  t.  Diagram  of  all  the  muscles  and  tendons 
on  the  back  of  the  right  hand  and 
wrist. 

1.  The  superficial  extensor  tendon  of  the 

index  finger. 

2.  The  long  extensor  tendon  of  the  thumb. 

3.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

index  finger. 

4.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  carpi  radialis 

brevior  muscle. 

3.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  carpi  radialis 
longior  muscle. 

6.  The  annular  ligament. 

7.  The  extensor  muscles  of  the  thumb. 

8.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscles  of  the 

ring  finger. 

g.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the 
little  finger. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  minimi  digiti 

muscle. 

11.  The  lower  end  of  the  radius. 

Fig.  2.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  back  of  the  hand  and 
wrist  (with  outline)  to  be  compared 
with  Fig.  f. 

1.  The  trapezium. 

2.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

4.  The  os  magnum. 

5.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

6.  The  styloid  process  of  the  ulna. 


Fig.  3.  Diagram  showing  all  the  tendons  and 
muscles  on  the  palmar  surface  of  the 
right  hand. 

1.  The  splitting  of  the  superficial  flexor  ten- 

don to  show  the  deep  flexor  tendon  of 
the  ring  finger. 

2.  'fhe  palmar  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

ring  finger. 

3.  The  flexor  tendon  of  the  little  finger. 

4.  The  abductor  minimi  digiti  muscle. 

5.  The  opponens  minimi  digiti  muscle. 

6.  Position  of  the  head  of  the  meta-carpal 

bone  of  the  middle  finger. 

7.  The  splitting  of  the  superficial  flexor  ten- 

don of  the  middle  finger. 

8.  The  palmar  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

middle  finger. 

g.  The  adductor  pollicis  muscle. 

10.  The  opponens  pollicis  muscle. 

11.  The  abductor  pollicis  muscle. 

12.  The  position  of  the  trapezium. 

Fig.  4.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  right  hand,  with  out- 
line (palmar  surface);  to  be  compared 
with  Fig.  3. 

1.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  ring  finger. 

2.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  middle 

finger. 

3.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

4.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 

5.  The  proximal  phalanx  of  the  middle 

finger. 

6.  The  trapezium. 

7.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

8.  The  styloid  process  of  the  radius. 


PLATE  49 


PLATE  50. 


Fig.  I,  Diagram  showing  the  relations  of  the 
interosseous  muscles  to  the  superficial 
flexor  tendons  on  the  palm  of  the 
right  hand. 

1.  I'he  annular  ligament. 

2.  The  superficial  flexor  tendon. 

3.  The  trapezium. 

4.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  index  | 

finger.  I 

5.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  middle  | 

finger. 

6.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  little 

finger. 

7.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  ring 

finger. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  the  palmar  fascia  on 
the  right  hand. 

1.  The  annular  ligament. 

2.  The  slip  from  the  palmar  fascia  to  the 

ball  of  the  thumb. 

3.  The  abductor  pollicis  muscle. 

4.  The  adductor  pollicis  muscle. 

5.  The  cut  border  of  the  skin  of  the  palm, 

showing  the  loops  of  the  palmar  fascia 
at  the  clefts  of  the  finger. 

6.  The  palmar  brevis  muscle. 

7.  The  sheath  of  the  muscles  of  the  balls 

of  the  thumb. 

8.  The  palmar  fascia. 

Fig.  3.  Drawing  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  ! 

hand  and  wrist  with  the  index  finger  , 
pointing;  to  be  compared  with  Fig.  4. 

1.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

2.  The  intermediary  phalanx  of  the  index 

finger. 

3.  The  proximal  phalanx  of  the  index  finger,  j 

4.  The  knuckle  joint  of  the  middle  finger. 

5.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger.  | 

6.  The  scaphoid  bone. 


Fig.  3 — continued. 

7.  The  lower  end  of  the  radius. 

8.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

9.  The  proximal  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

10.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

11.  The  trapezium. 

12.  The  shaft  of  the  ulna. 

13.  The  annular  ligament. 

14.  fhe  tendon  of  the  superficial  common  ex- 

tensor muscle  to  the  fingers. 

Fig.  4.  Drawing  of  the  right  hand  as  in  Fig.  3, 
showing  the  relations  of  the  tendons 
and  muscles  to  the  index  finger  and 
thumb. 

1.  The  extensor  tendon  passing  to  the 

ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

2.  The  blending  of  the  tendon  of  the  inter- 

osseous muscle  with  the  extensor  ten- 
don of  the  index  finger. 

3.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger. 

4.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  of  the 

middle  finger. 

5.  The  trapezoid  bone. 

6.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

7.  The  annular  ligament. 

8.  The  middle  extensor  tendon  of  the 

thumb. 

g.  The  outer  extensor  tendon  of  the  thumb. 

10.  The  insertion  of  the  tendon  of  the  long 

extensor  muscle  of  the  thumb. 

1 1.  The  adductor  pollicis  muscle. 

12.  The  tendon  of  the  long  extensor  muscle 

of  the  thumb. 

13.  The  tendon  of  the  short  extensor  muscle 

of  the  thumb. 

14.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  muscle  to 

the  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

15.  The  os  magnum. 

16.  The  wrist  joint. 

17.  The  flexor  tendons. 


PLATE  50 


PLATE  51. 


Figf.  I.  Photogfraph  of  the  palmar  surface  of 
the  skeleton  of  the  rigfht  hand  of  a 
woman. 

1.  The  scaphoid  bone, 

2.  The  trapezium. 

3.  The  trapezoid. 

4.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

3.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

6.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

7.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger. 

8.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

9.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

10.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

11.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

12.  The  cuneiform  bone. 

I 3.  The  os  magnum. 

14.  The  unciform  and  pisiform  bones. 

15.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  little  finger. 

lO.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

17.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

18.  The  third  or  ungual  phalanx  of  the  little 

finger. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  the  palmar  surface  of 
the  skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a 
man.  The  numbers  indicate  the  same 
bones  as  in  Fig.  I. 

Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  the  dorsal  surface  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a woman. 

1.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

2.  The  cuneiform  bone. 

3.  The  os  magnum. 

4.  The  unciform  bone. 

5.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  little  finger. 

6.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

7.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

8.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

9.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

10.  The  trapezoid. 

11.  The  trapezium. 

12.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

13.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

14.  I he  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 


' Fig.  3 — continued. 

15.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

16.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

17.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

Fig.  4.  Photograph  of  the  dorsal  surface  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  right  hand  of  a man. 
The  numbers  indicate  the  same  bones 
as  in  Fig.  3. 

Fig.  5.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right 
hand  of  a woman  {iiuier  side) . 

1.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

2.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

3.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

4.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  middle 

finger. 

5.  The  unciform  bone. 

6.  The  semi-lunar  bone. 

7.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  middle  finger. 

8.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  ring  linger. 

9.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

10.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

1 1.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

12.  The  meta-carpal  I one  of  the  thumb. 

I 13.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

Fig.  6.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right 
hand  of  a woman  (outer  side). 

1.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

2.  The  trapezoid. 

3.  The  os  magnum. 

4.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  index  finger. 

5.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

6.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

7.  The  trapezium. 

8.  The  meta-carpal  bone  of  the  thumb. 

9.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb. 

10.  The  ungual  phal.inx  of  the  thumb. 

11.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  index  finger. 

12.  fhe  ungual  phalanx  of  the  little  finger. 

13.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  ring  finger. 

14.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  middle  finger. 


PLATE  51 


Fi^.3 


Fig.4^ 


X~ 


PLATE  52. 


Photogfraphs  of  a man's  hand  in  various  positions. 


Fig.  J.  The  palmar  surface  of  the  right  hand 
with  the  fingers  outstretched  to  show 
the  surface  markings. 

Fig.  2,  The  dorsal  surface  of  the  right  hand 
(same  as  Fig.  I ). 

Fig.  3.  The  thumb  side  of  the  right  hand  as 
in  an  ordinary  gesture. 


Fig.  4.  The  palmar  surface  of  same  hand  as  in 
Fig.  3 — showing  the  relations  of  the 
fingers. 

Fig.  5.  The  thumb  side  of  the  right  hand  with 
the  index  finger  as  in  pointing. 

Fig.  6.  The  dorsal  surface  of  the  hand  in  the 
same  position  as  in  Fig.  5. 


PLATE  52 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  6 


• f 


PLATE  53. 


Photographs  of  a man's  hand  in  various  positions. 


Fig.  t.  The  right  hand  in  a receptive  position, 
showing  the  markings  on  the  palmar 
surface. 

Fig.  2.  The  thumb  and  back  view  of  the  left 
hand  extended  as  in  surprise. 

Fig.  3.  The  right  hand  with  the  fingers  closed 
on  the  palm  as  in  grasping. 


Fig.  4 The  palmar  surface  of  the  right  hand 
with  the  fingers  separated  as  in  the 
attitude  of  one  imploring. 

Fig.  5.  The  right  hand  as  in  pressing  against 
an  object  to  assist  in  maintaining 
equilibrium. 

Fig.  6.  The  back  of  the  right  hand  extended 
as  in  negation. 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  1 


PLATE  53 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  3 


Anatumv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  PELVIS. 

The  pelvis  (basin)  (Plate  25)  is  the  lower  portion  of  the  trunk.  It  is 
peculiarly  constructed,  so  that  it  serves  not  only  to  protect  the  viscera 
which  it  contains,  and  to  support  some  of  the  viscera  of  the  abdomen, 
(Plate  31,  Fig.  i),  but  also  to  transmit  the  weight  of  the  body  to  the  lower 
extremities.  It  also  affords  attachment  to  the  muscles  which  steady  the  trunk 
and  move  the  thighs. 

In  the  adult  the  pelvis  consists  of  four  bones:  the  right  and  left  innomi- 
nate bones,  the  sacrum  and  the  coccyx.  These  bones  are  arranged  in  the  form 
of  an  oblique  arch,  with  broadly  expanded  wings.  The  innominate  bones  join 
with  each  other  in  front  of  the  pubis,  aiid  receive  the  sacrum  between  them 
behind  in  the  manner  of  a keystone  to  an  arch,  constituting  the  pelvic  girdle, 
which  is  a rigid  portion  of  the  trunk  and  altogether  unlike  the  movable 
shoulder  girdle  (Plate  38,  Figs.  14  and-  i^). 

The  pelvis  undergoes  alteration  in  form  and  obliquity  from  infancy  to 
puberty  in  accordance  with  its  adaptation  to  the  transmission  of  the  weight  of 
the  body  in  the  standing  and  sitting  postures.  The  obliquity  of  the  pelvic  arch 
assists  in  distributing  the  effects  of  shocks  received  from  below,  as  in  jumping. 

Each  innominate  bone  (haunch  or  hip  bone)  is  an  irregularly  shaped  bone 
which  before  puberty  is  composed  of  three  portions,  the  ilium,  the  ischium, 
and  the  pubis.  They  meet  at  the  acetabulum,  which  is  the  large  cup-shaped 
cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  femur,  or  thigh  bone  (Plate  7, 
Fig.  9).  The  prominences  of  the  innominate  bones  are  constantly  referred  to 
as  landmarks.  The  broad  expanded  portion  which  supports  the  flank  is  formed 
by  the  ilium ; its  margin,  or  crest,  is  subcutaneous  and  presents  at  each  end  a 
superior  spinous  process  (Plate  54,  Fig.  2,  and  Plate  55,  Fig.  2). 

The  ischium  is  the  inferior  and  strongest  portion  of  the  innominate  bone. 
It  consists  mainly  of  a large  rough  mass,  the  tuberosity,  upon  which  the  weight 
of  the  body  is  received  in  the  sitting  position  (Plates  71,  72,  75  and  84). 

The  pubis  is  the  front  part  of  the  innominate  bone  and  joins  with  the 
corresponding  portion  of  the  opposite  bone,  their  junction  being  called  the 

89 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

symphysis  (Plate  54,  Fig.  i).  Between  the  ischium  and  the  pubis  there  is  a large 
aperture,  the  obturator  foramen,  which  gives  lightness  without  diminishing  the 
strength  of  the  pelvis.  The  obturator  foramen  is  an  irregular  oval  in  the  male, 
while  in  the  female  it  is  shorter  and  broader,  and  triangular  in  shape  (Plate 
54,  Fig.  2,  and  Plate  55,  Fig.  2). 

The  sacrum  and  the  coccyx  belong  essentially  to  the  vertebral  column  (page 
49)  and  form,  when  taken  together,  the  back  wall  of  the  pelvic  cavity  ( Plate  24, 
Fig.  1).  In  childhood  the  sacrum  consists  of  five  separate  sacral  vertebrce  which 
decrease  in  size  from  above  downward.  At  puberty  the  intervertebral  disks  of 
cartilage  become  ossified,  and  the  component  vertebrae  are  consolidated  into  one 
bony  mass. 

The  coccyx  (Plate  38,  Fig.  ij)  is  originally  composed  of  four  or  five  rudi- 
mentary vertebrae  which,  after  adult  age,  usually  consolidate  into  one  or  two 
pieces.  It  is  the  caudal  appendage  of  the  skeleton. 

The  pelves  of  Ihe  adult  male  and  female  present  many  points  of  contrast. 
The  bones  of  the  male  pelvis  (Plate  55,  Figs,  i and  2)  after  puberty  are  always 
rougher  and  more  massive,  and  its  cavity  is  deeper  and  narrower  than  in  the 
female  pelvis  (Plate  54,  Figs,  i and  2),  the  bones  of  which  are  more  expanded, 
and  the  cavity  is  shallower  and  more  capacious,  owing  to  the  greater  width  of 
the  pubic  arch ; to  the  sacrum  being  less  curved,  and  to  the  ischial  tuberosities 
being  everted.  The  acetabula,  and  consequently  the  heads  of  the  thigh  bones, 
are  further  apart  in  the  female  than  they  are  in  the  male  (Plates  2,  4 and  6j. 


90 


i 


PLATE  54. 


Drawings  from 

Fig.  I.  The  female  pelvis  {from  above). 

1.  Tlie  right  ilium. 

2.  The  cavity  of  the  pelvis. 

3.  The  right  acetabulum. 

4.  The  obturator  foramen. 

5.  The  right  ischium. 

6.  The  left  ilium. 

7.  The  sacrum. 

8.  The  coccyx. 

9.  The  left  acetabulum. 

10.  The  left  ischium. 

Fig.  2.  The  female  pelvis  {from  the  right  side). 

1 . The  ilium. 

2.  I'he  sacrum. 

3.  The  coccyx. 

4.  The  great  sciatic  foramen. 

5.  The  ischium. 

6.  The  acetabulum. 

7.  The  pubis. 

8.  The  obturator  foramen. 

Fig.  3.  The  right  femur  or  thigh  bone  {from 
the  front). 

1.  The  head. 

2.  The  greater  trochanter. 

3.  The  upper  portion  of  the  shaft. 

4.  The  lower  portion  of  the  shaft. 

5.  The  external  condyle. 

6.  The  patellar  surface. 

7.  The  neck. 

8.  The  lesser  trochanter. 

9.  The  adductor  tubercle. 

10.  The  internal  condyle. 


Photographs. 

Fig.  4.  The  right  femur  ( from  the  back). 

1.  The  neck. 

2.  The  lesser  trochanter. 

3.  The  upper  portion  of  the  shaft. 

4.  The  linea  aspera. 

5.  The  lower  portion  of  the  shaft. 

6.  The  adductor  tubercle. 

7.  The  internal  condyle. 

8.  The  head. 

9.  The  greater  trochanter. 

10.  The  external  condyle. 

Fig.  5.  The  right  femur  {from  the  outer  side). 

1.  The  head. 

2.  The  greater  trochanter. 

3.  The  lesser  trochanter. 

4.  The  shaft. 

5.  The  external  condyle. 

6.  The  neck. 

Fig.  6.  The  right  femur  {from  the  inner  side). 

1.  The  head. 

2.  The  internal  condyle. 

3.  The  depression  for  the  attachment  of  the 

ligamentum  teres. 

4.  The  lesser  trochanter. 

5.  The  shaft. 

6.  The  external  condyle. 


PLATE  04 


PLATE  66. 


Drawing's  from  Photogfraphs. 


Fig:.  The  male  pelvis  {from  above). 

1 . The  right  ilium. 

2.  The  sacrum. 

3.  The  cavity  of  the  pelvis, 

4.  The  right  acetabulum. 

5.  The  coccyx. 

6.  I he  obturator  foramen. 

7.  The  right  ischium. 

8.  The  left  ilium. 

9.  The  left  acetabulum. 

10.  The  left  ischium. 

Fig’.  2.  The  male  pelvis  {from  the  right  side). 

1.  The  ilium. 

2.  The  sacrum. 

3.  The  coccyx. 

4.  The  sciatic  notch. 

5.  The  ischium. 

6.  The  acetabulum. 

7.  The  pubis. 

8.  The  obturator  foramen. 

Fig.  3.  The  patella  and  bones  of  the  leg,  tibia 
and  fibula  {from  the  front). 

1.  I he  patella. 

2.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

5.  The  lower  end  of  the  fibula,  or  external 

malleolus. 

6.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

7.  The  crest  of  the  tibia. 

8-  The  lower  end  of  the  tibia,  or  internal 
malleolus. 


Fig.  4.  The  patella,  tibia  and  fibula  { from  the 
bach). 

1.  The  patella. 

2.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  oblique  line. 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

5.  The  internal  malleolus. 

6.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

7.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

8.  The  external  malleolus. 

Fig.  5.  The  patella,  tibia  and  fibula  {from  the 
outer  side). 

1.  The  patella. 

2.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

5.  The  external  malleolus. 

6.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

7.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

8.  The  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 

Fig.  6.  The  patella,  tibia  and  fibula  {from  the 
inner  side). 

1.  The  patella. 

2.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

4.  The  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 

5.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

6.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

7.  The  external  malleolus. 


PLATE  55 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  LOWER  EXTREMITY. 

The  skeleton  of  the  loveer  extremity  (Plates  '2,  4 and  <3)  consists  of  the  innom- 
inate bone,  the  femur,  the  tibia,  and  the  fibula,  the  tarsal,  the  meta-tarsal, 
and  the  dioital  bones. 

The  innominate  bone  is  one  of  the  component  bones  of  the  pelvis,  and  is 
described  on  page  89. 

The  femur,  (Plate  54,  Figs,  y 4,  ^ and  6)  the  single  bone  of  the  thigh,  is  the 
longest  and  strongest  bone  of  the  entire  skeleton,  and  presents  an  excellent 
illustration  of  the  combined  inlluence  of  gravity  and  muscular  force;  its  general 
character  and  development  determining  the  stature.  The  natural  position  of  the 
femur  in  the  erect  posture  is  more  or  less  oblique,  depending  upon  the  angle 
formed  between  the  head  of  the  bone  and  its  neck,  and  the  width  of  the  pelvis. 
The  degree  of  obliquity  therefore  varies  in  different  individuals,  being  adapted  in 
each  to  the  transmission  of  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  body,  so  that  in 
walking  each  limb  may  be  alternately  brought  into  the  line  of  the  centre  of 
gravity  (Plate  103).  The  obliquity  is  best  appreciated  if  the  tw'o  femora  are 
examined  in  an  articulated  skeleton,  where  they  will  be  seen  to  converge 
toward  the  knees,  where  they  form  angles  of  ten  degrees  with  the  bones  of 
the  corresponding  legs,  which  are  straight  (Plates  2,4,  31  and  56). 

The  upper  end  of  the  femur  (Plate  54)  consists  of  a head  and  neck  and  two 
rough  processes  called  the  greater  and  lesser  trochanters.  The  head  is  the  glob- 
ular portion  which,  in  the  erect  position,  is  directed  upward,  inward,  and  a little 
forward,  to  be  received  into  the  acetabulum,  the  large  cup-shaped  cavity  of 
the  innominate  bone.  The  neck  is  the  portion  of  the  bone  which  connects 
the  head  with  the  shaft,  and  varies  in  length  and  obliquity.  In  the  adult  male 
(Plates  2 and  56)  it  forms  an  angle  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
degrees  with  the  shaft;  in  the  adult  female  (Plate  4),  owing  to  the  greater 
width  of  the  pelvis,  the  angle  is  somewhat  less. 

The  greater  trochanter  is  the  irregular  quadrilateral  projection  upward  and 
outward  from  the  shaft,  and  the  lesser  trochanter,  of  variable  shape,  is  the  pro- 
jection from  the  lower  and  posterior  part  of  the  base  of  the  neck  (Plate  54). 

91 


/hiatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

Tlie  shaft  of  the  femur  is  curved  with  a smooth  anterior  convexity  wtiich 
in  the  lower  part  gradually  llattens  as  it  expands  at  the  knee.  There  is  a 
decided  twast  in  the  shaft  which  causes  a change  in  the  relative  bearing  of  the 
anterior  surface,  so  that  above  it  is  directed  forward  and  outward,  while  below 
it  is  directed  forward  and  inward.  The  posterior  surface  of  the  shaft  presents 
a longitudinal  .roughened  ridge,  called  the  lined  aspera,  which  consists  of  two 
slightly  raised  borders  with  an  intermediate  furrow.  The  two  borcfers  of  the 
linea  aspera  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  shaft  diverge  toward  the  bases  of  the 
greater  and  lesser  trochanters,  while  in  the  lower  portion  they  again  diverge 
toward  the  external  and  internal  condyles,  thereby  forming  the  popliteal  surface. 
The  lower  end  of  the  femur  consists  of  two  ovoidal  re;/(/p/c’s  which  are  separated 
by  a deep  notch  (Plate  54).  The  condyles  blend  in  front,  forming  a smooth 
trochlear  surface  for  the  easy  play  of  the  patella  in  the  extension  and  flexion  of 
the  knee  joint.  Both  condyles  are  on  the  same  level  when  the  bone  is  in  its 
natural  position,  although  the  inner  condyle  is  longer  than  the  outer.  The  great 
trochanter  and  the  condyles  of  the  femur  serve  as  landmarks  because  they  are 
sub-cutaneous.  The  shaft,  like  that  of  the  humerus,  although  completely  sur- 
rounded by  the  soft  structures  which  it  supports,  contributes  to  the  curved  form 
of  the  thigh,  which  is  always  convex  in  front  (Plate  61), 

The  bones  which  constitute  the  knee  joint  are  the  lower  end  of  the  femur 
with  the  patella  superposed  upon  its  condyles,  and  the  upper  end  of  the  tibia. 

The  patella,  or  knee  pan  (Plate  55),  is  a flattened  triangular  bone  placed 
with  its  apex  downward  in  front  of  the  knee  and  so  disposed  that  its  lower 
articular  surface  rests  upon  the  trochlear  of  the  femur,  to  a variable  extent 
depending  upon  the  degree  of  the  extension  or  flexion  of  the  knee  joint.  In 
the  female  the  patella  is  proportionately  wider  than  it  is  in  the  male.  It  should 
be  understood  that  the  whole  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  patella  is  never  in 
contact  with  the  femur.  The  greatest  extent  to  which  the  surfaces  are  brought 
in  apposition  occurs  when  the  joint  is  in  the  mid  position  between  extension  and 
Ilexion.  When  the  leg  is  extended  and  the  foot  rested  so  that  there  is  no  strain 
upon  the  extensor  muscles,  the  patella  is  freely  movable.  Its  function,  besides 
affording  protection  to  the  front  of  the  knee  joint,  is  to  increase  the  leverage  of 
th.e  great  extensor  muscle  on  the  front  of  the  thigh.  The  varying  positions 


92 


Aihitomy  in  /Is  ReLil/on  to  A/i. 

anJ  relatioFis  of  the  patella  should  be  carefully  studied,  in  comparison  with  the 
corresponding  bone  of  the  opposite  limb,  which  is  at  all  times  a ready  and  val- 
uable guide  for  reference. 

The  two  bones,  the  tibia  and  the  fibula,  which  compose  the  skeleton  of  the 
leg  (Plate  hb.  Figs.  3,  4,  and  6,  and  Plates  <33  and  65),  are  joined  almost  immov- 
ably together  at  the  upper  and  lower  . ends. 

The  tibia  is  the  innermost  and  strongest,  sustaining  the  entire  weight  of 
the  body  in  the  erect  position,  while  the  fibula  is  upon  the  outer  side  and  is 
very  slender,  serving  to  give  attachment  to  muscles,  and  contributing  by 
its  lower  end,  with  that  of  the  tibia,  to  the  formation  of  the  ankle  joint.  They 
are  nearly  parallel,  but  as  the  tibia  is  bowed  slightly  forward  and  the  hbula  back- 
ward, there  is  a difference  in  the  relative  bearing  of  the  planes  of  their  surfaces, 
so  that  the  fibula  occupies  a posterior  position  to  that  of  the  tibia  (Plate  63). 
The  upper  end  of  the  tibia  (Plate  55)  is  expanded  and  about  twice  as  broad  as 
the  lower  end.  It  consists  of  an  outer  and  inner  tuberosity,  separated  at  the 
back  by  a shallow  notch.  In  front  the  two  tuberosities  are  continuous  with 
each  other,  and  about  an  inch  below  the  articular  surfaces  there  is  a prominent 
elevation  called  ihe  tiibcirtc  of  the  tibia.  The  articular  surfaces  are  smooth  and 
concave  for  articulation  with  the  condyles  of  the  femur.  Behind  the  external 
tuberosity  there  is  an  articular  facet  for  the  head  of  the  fibula.  The  shaft  of  the 
tibia  is,  in  a greater  part  of  its  extent,  three-sided.  It  gradually  decreases  in  size 
to  the  commencement  of  the  lower  fourth,  where  it  expands  at  the  ankle.  The 
inner  surface  is  flat  and  sub-cutaneous  and  is  commonly  called  the  shin.  It  is 
the  largest  sub-cutaneous  area  of  bone  in  the  entire  skeleton. 

The  posterior  surface  of  the  tibia  presents  about  a hand’s  breadth  below 
the  knee  an  oblique  line  called  the  tinea  solea  (Plate  55,  Fig.  4,  and  Plate  65, 
Fig.  2).  The  lower  end  of  the  tibia  gradually  expands  into  a quadrilateral 
mass  from  which  a strong  process  projects  from  the  inner  side,  constituting 
the  inten/al  malleoliis,  which  descends  below  the  level  of  the  ankle  joint  and 
is  a conspicuous  landmark. 

The  fibula  (peroneal  or  splint  bone)  is  the  most  slender  of  all  the  long  bones 
of  the  skeleton.  Its  length  about  equals  that  of  the  tibia,  but  as  its  upper  end 
is  articulated  with  the  outer  tuberosity  of  that  bone  below  the  knee  joint,  its 


93 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 

lower  end,  forming  the  external  malleolus,  projects  considerably  below  the  inter- 
nal malleolus,  formed  by  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 

The  contiguous  borders  of  the  two  bones  of  the  leg  are  connected  by  an 
interosseous  membrane  similar  to  that  in  the  forearm  (page  73).  The  two  bones 
of  the  leg,  as  already  stated,  are  connected  by  ligaments  above  and  below, 
and  although  the  movements  between  them  are  very  slight,  they  are  of  exceed- 
ing importance.  The  fibula  is  the  movable  bone,  and  the  yielding  of  this  bone 
at  its  upper  and  lower  attachments  prevents  injury  from  shocks  received  from 
below,  as  when  the  body-weight  is  received  upon  the  feet  in  jumping  or  leap- 
ing from  a height. 

The  skeleton  of  the  foot  (Plates  63,  65,  68  and  69)  consists  of  the  heel, 
or  tarsus,  the  median  portion,  or  meta-tarsus,  and  the  phalanges,  or  bones  of 
the  toes. 

In  general  arrangement  the  bones  of  the  different  portions  of  the  foot 
correspond  to  those  of  the  hand,  but  they  are  especially  modified  so  as  to 
adapt  them  to  firmness  and  strength  rather  than  to  mobility. 

The  tarsus  is  greater  in  length  than  the  meta-tarsus,  while  the  meta-tarsus 
is  longer  than  the  phalanges,  which  is  the  reverse  of  the  relative  proportion  of 
their  analogues  in  the  hand.  The  plantar  surface  is  always  normally  turned 
downward  and  the  dorsal  surface  upward,  the  foot  being,  consequently,  in  a 
permanent  position  of  pronation  and  over-extension. 

There  are  seven  tarsal  bones  which  are  short  and  thick  and  arranged  in  three 
groups  (Plate  08,  Fig.  i,  and  Plate  69,  Fig.  4).  The  posterior  group  consists  of 
the  astragalus  and  the  os  calcis ; the  central  of  the  scaplioid,  and  the  anterior  of 
the  cuboid  and  three  cuneiform  bones.  The  dorsal  surfaces  of  the  tarsal  bones 
are  smoother  than  the  plantar  surfaces,  which  are  grooved  for  the  play  of  the 
flexor  tendons  (Plate  69).  The  contiguous  surfaces  of  the  tarsal  bones  form 
gliding  joints  with  one  another,  but  the  degree  of  motion  is  even  less  than  that 
between  the  corresponding  carpal  bones.  There  is,  however,  considerable  rota- 
tion as  well  as  abduction  and  adduction  between  the  astragalus  and  the  os  calcis 
which  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  motion  of  the  ankle  joint  above. 

The  astragalus  is  the  uppermost  bone  of  the  tarsus  and  the  only  one  in 
direct  contact  with  the  bones  of  the  leg  (Plate  63),  and  the  ankle  joint  is  formed 


94 


Anatumy  in  its  lieLitiun  to  Art. 


by  its  troclilear  surface  being  received  against  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  and 
articulating  by  its  two  lateral  facets  with  the  malleolus  of  the  tibia  upon  the  inner 
side,  and  with  the  malleolus  of  the  fibula  upon  the  outer  side.  It  is  a hinge  joint 
which  is  surrounded  by  a capsular  ligament,  and  strengthened  upon  the  sides  by 
special  lateral  ligaments  and  by  the  many  tendons  which  surround  it  (Plate  9, 
Figs.  7 and  8). 

The  os  calc  is,  or  catcaneiun,  is  the  largest  and  strongest  of  the  tarsal  bones. 
It  is  beneath  the  astragalus  and  projects  backward  to  a variable  extent  in  differ- 
ent individuals,  forming  the  heel.  The  tendon  of  Achilles  is  attached  to  its 
roughened  posterior  part.  The  inner  surface  projects  inwardly,  forming  the 
siisteiitaeiilnm  tali  (Plate  68,  Fig.  i)  which  supports  the  astragalus.  Owing  to 
this  formation  of  the  bone  there  is  a deep  concavity  on  the  internal  surface 
which  allows  the  flexor  tendons  to  pass  to  the  sole  of  the  foot  (Plate  64, 
Fig.  2).  The  character  and  relations  of  the  rest  of  the  tarsal  bones  can  be 
understood  by  referring  to  the  plates  where  they  are  shown  from  different 
points  of  view. 

There  are  five  meta-tarsal  bones  which  in  general  construction  resemble  the 
meta-carpal  bones  of  the  hand.  The  shafts  are  slightly  curved  longitudinally, 

presenting,  when  in  position,  a convex  surface  above  and  a concave  surface 

below.  The  first  or  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe  is  peculiar  for  its  great 
thickness  and  for  its  being  shorter  than  the  other  meta-tarsal  bones.  Its  shaft 
IS  very  strong  and  is  prismoid  in  form,  and  the  head  is  large,  being  provided 
on  the  plantar  surface  with  grooves  for  the  sesamoid  bones  (page  i lo).  The 
second  meta-tarsal  bone  is  the  longest  of  the  series,  its  head  advancing  beyond 
the  heads  of  all  the  others,  its  base  is  peculiarly  lodged  between  the  three 
cuneiform  bones  (Plate  63,  Fig.  3).  The  fifth  or  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little 
toe  has  a very  small  head,  and  a base  which  is  peculiar  for  the  rough  tuber- 
osity which  projects  outwardly,  and  is  a prominent  feature. 

The  phalanges  are,  as  in  the  hand,  two  in  the  great  toe  and  three  in  each 
of  the  other  toes.  They  are  all  shorter  than  the  phalanges  in  the  fingers. 
The  first  phalanx  in  the  great  toe  is  the  largest,  and  the  others  decrease  in 

size  in  succession  to  that  of  the  little  toe.  The  second  phalanges  are  all  com- 

paratively very  short.  The  third,  or  ungual,  phalanges  are  shaped  a great 


95 


y^nafonip  in  its  Relation  to  /hi. 


deal  like  those  of  the  fingers,  only  smaller.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  great 
toe  is  much  the  largest.  The  joints  between  the  phalanges  are  capable  of  greater 
dorsal  extension  than  the  corresponding  joints  in  the’  fingers,  and  can  be  sim- 
ilarly flexed,  abducted  and  adducted.  During  flexion  the  toes  have  a decided 
tendency  to  converge. 

When  the  entire  skeleton  of  the  foot  (Plate  03)  is  examined  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  narrowest  part  is  formed  by  the  projection  backward  of  the  os  calcis, 
(the  heel),  that  it  widens  at  the  heads  of  the  meta-tarsal  bones  (the  balls  of 
the  toes),  and  that  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  between  these  points  pro- 
duces an  antero-posterior,  or  lonf^itndinai,  arch.  This  is  of  great  importance,  as 
it  contributes  to  the  grace  and  freedom  of  movement  of  the  foot.  The  points 
of  support,  or  buttresses  of  the  arch,  are  formed  by  the  os  calcis  behind,  and 
che  under  surface  of  the  head  of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe  upon 
the  inner  side  in  front,  while  the  tuberosity  of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little 
toe  is  another,  although  weaker  support,  on  the  outer  side.  The  highest  point 
of  the  arch  corresponds  to  the  joint  between  the  astragalus  and  scaphoid  bones. 
It  is  called  the  instep,  and  it  is  also  the  weakest  part  of  the  arch.  Under  the 
instep  on  the  plantar  surface  there  is  a ligament  which  is  composed  chiefly  of 
elastic  fibres,  and  this  arrangement  allows  the  arch  to  yield  slightly,  so  that 
the  foot  can  resist  'shock  received  upon  its  anterior  surface.  It  moreover 
contributes  to  the  springy  action  of  the  foot,  so  essential  in  active  exercise. 

The  weight  of  the  body  is  chiefly  received  upon  the  arch  extending 
between  the  heel  and  the  ball  of  the  great  toe.  Besides  the  longitudinal  arch 
the  foot  presents,  beneath  the  instep,  a transverse  half  arch,  so  that  the  half 
arches  of  the  two  feet,  when  they  are  placed  together  upon  the  ground  in  the 
erect  position,  may  be  considered  as  forming  a complete  arch.  This  is  of  great 
importance,  because  it  serves  as  a firm  basis  of  support  and  equally  distributes 
the  weight  transmitted  through  the  two  legs. 

When  the  imprint  of  a wet  foot  upon  a smooth  floor  is  examined,  the 
broad  impressions  made  by  the  heel  and  the  balls  of  the  toes  are  generally 
connected  on  the  outer  side  by  a band  which  is  broader  or  narrower  accord- 
ing to  the  development  of  the  longitudinal  arch.  The  impression  of  the  entire 
sole  will  be  made  if  the  bridge  of  the  instep  is  low,  as  in  llat-footed  people: 
while  in  those  whose  arched  insteps  are  very  high,  the  only  impression  thus 

96 


Aiutoiuy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


made  corresponds  to  the  heels  and  the  balls  of  the  toes,  the  intervening 
portions  of  the  sole  hardly  touching  the  surface  upon  the  outer  side.  It 
should  be  understood  that  the  maintenance  of  the  natural  longitudinal  arch,  as 
well  as  the  half  arch  of  tlie  foot,  is  due  not  only  to  the  conformation  of  the 
bones,  but  also  to  the  peculiar  ligaments  and  tendons  of  the-  plantar  surface  of 
the  foot  (Plates  08  and  Of)).  It  should  also  be  recognized  that  the  foot  spreads 
out  when  the  weight  of  the  body  is  received  upon  it,  so  that  the  shape  and 
size  of  the  foot  differ  according  t(j  whether  or  not  it  is  subjected  to  pressure. 
This  is  very  distinctly  indicated  in  the  Flying  Mercury. 

The  hip  joint  is  formed  by  tlie  adaptation  of  the  head  of  the  femur  to 
the  acetabulum  in  the  innominate  bone,  and  is  a much  more  perfect  ball  and 
socket  joint  than  that  formed  at  the  shoulder  by  the  head  of  the  humerus 
and  the  glenoid  cavity  of  tlie  scapula  (Plates  58  and  81).  The  general 
functions  of  the  ligaments  of  the  hip  joint  are  described  on  page  23,  and  the 
ligaments  are  sliown  on  Plate  7,  Figs.  4,  9 and  6.  In  this  connection  the 
Y-shaped  ilio-femoral  ligament  requires  particular  consideration,  because  it 
mainly  economizes  muscular  effort  in  balancing  the  trunk.  In  this  it  is  con- 
siderably aided  by  the  atmospheric  pressure,  which  is  sufficient  to  hold  the 
bones  together  at  the  hip  after  the  severance  of  all  the. ligaments  and  over- 
lying  muscles. 

The  Y-ligament  is  the  chief  factor  in  preventing  extreme  backward 
extension  of  the  thigh  on  the  trunk,  so  that  the  erect  posture  can  be  prolonged 
by  the  mechanical  locking  of  the  hip  joint  through  the  tenseness  of  the  ligament 
alone.  In  the  ordinary  erect  position,  with  the  heels  together,  called  the  “military 
position,”  the  centre  of  gravity  is  behind  the  axes  of  the  hip  joints.  If  this  is 
changed  by  stooping  forward  so  as  to  fall  in  front  of  the  hips,  the  position 
cannot  be  long  endured,  because  the  ligament  is  proportionately  relaxed  and 
the  strain  is  counteracted,  especially  by  the  muscles  of  the  buttocks  and  the 
back  of  the  thighs. 

in  standing  on  one  leg,  with  the  weight  received  solely  or  mostly  upon 
it,  it  is  possible  to  extend  the  other  leg  backward  so  as  to  touch  the  ground 
with  the  toes.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
body  falls  behind  the  hip  joint  of  the  limb  bearing  the  weight,  and  that  the 


97 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

joint  itself  is  in  a state  of  flexion,  the  Y-ligament  not  being  tense,  and  the 
equilibrium  is  established  by  the  counterpoise  of  the  opposite  limb  extended 
behind  the  line  of  gravity.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  act  of  walking  up  and 
down  stairs  (Plate  104).  In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
movement  forward  (flexion)  at  the  hip  joint,  by  which  the  front  of  the  thigh 
can  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  front  of  the  abdomen,  depends  upon  the 
simultaneous  bending  of  the  knee  joint.  The  degree  to  which  the  knee  is 
flexed  regulates  the  degree  to  which  the  corresponding  hip  joint  can  be  flexed, 
because  of  the  counteraction  of  the  flexor  muscles  on  the  back  of  the  thigh, 
called  the  hamstring  muscles  (f)age  107).  For  the  same  reason  it  is  not  easy  to 
touch  the  toes  without  bending  the  knees  (Plate  23,  Fig.  4).  The  movements 
of  adduction,  abduction,  and  rotation,  which  are  also  possible  at  the  hip  joint, 
are  affected  by  tlie  various  muscles  of  this  region,  and  are  limited  either  by 
the  action  of  the  ligaments  or  by  the  interference  of  the  acetabulum  with  the 
neck  of  the  femur  in  certain  positions. 

The  muscles  surrounding  the  hip  joint  are  the  ilio-psoas  in  front  (Plate  43, 
Fig.  2),  the  rectus  femoris  and  the  gluteus  minimus  externally  (Plate  57),  the 
pyriformis,  the  two  obturators,  the  two  gemelli,  and  the  quadratus  behind 
(Plate  59),  and  the  pectineus  internally  (Plate  57). 

The  great  masses  of  muscles,  with  the  overlying  integument  covering  the 
hip  joints  posteriorly,  are  called  the  buttocks.  They  are  peculiar  to  man,  being 
consequent  upon  the  erect  position  which  he  naturally  assumes.  Each  buttock 
is  limited  by  the  crest  of  the  ilium  above,  and  the  fold  which  forms  a remark- 
able curve  below,  across  the  back  of  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  ( Plate  h). 

The  buttocks  are  formed  chiefly  by  the  three  glutei  muscles. 

The  gluteus  maximus  muscle  (Plate  60,  Fig.  2)  is  the  largest  fleshy  mass 
in  the  body.  It  is  very  thick,  and  composed  of  coarse  bundles  of  fibres 
which  arise  from  the  posterior  portion  of  the  ilium  and  from  the  spines  of  the 
sacrum  and  coccyx.  Its  fibres  pass  obliquely  to  be  inserted  into  the  /j5c/j  lata 
(page  10^),  on  the  outer  part  of  the  thigh,  and  crossing  over  the  great  trochanter 
blend  with  the  sheath  of  the  vastus  externus  muscle.  The  lower  margin  of 
the  gluteus  maximus  forms  the  gluteal  fold  (Plates  6 and  42). 

98 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


diction  of  the  }i;luteus  maxiinns  muscle. — This  muscle  abducts  the  thigh 
and  rotates  it  outward,  making  tense  the  fascia  lata.  It  extends  the  thigh  bone 
upon  the  pelvis,  and  thus  serves  to  raise  the  body  from  the  sitting  to  the 
erect  position.  In  walking  (Plates  104  and  lor>),  it  acts  from  the  thigh  to  the 
pelvis,  maintaining  the  body  upright.  It  also  aids  in  propelling  the  body  in 
running  and  leaping. 

The  glutens  medius  muscle  (Plate  59,  Fig.  2)  is  beneath  the  former  muscle. 
Its  fibres  arise  from  the  ilium  below  the  crest  of  the  bone  and  converge  to 
a flat  tendon  which  is  attached  to  the  upper  and  outer  surface  of  the  great 
trochanter. 

zActiou  of  the  gluteus  medius  muscle. — Acting  from  the  ilium  it  abducts 
the  thigh  and  rotates  it  inward;  while  acting  from  the  great  trochanter  it 
extends  the  pelvis  outward,  assisting  in  balancing  it  when  standing  on  one  leg. 

The  gluteus  minimus  muscle  (Plate  59,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  lower  and 
back  surface  of  the  ilium,  and  its  tendon  is  attached  to  the  front  and  outer 
part  of  the  great  trochanter. 

{Action  of  the  gluteus  minimus  muscle. — It  chiefly  serves  to  augment  the 
function  of  the  other  muscles  of  the  buttock.  It  abducts  the  thigh  when  acting 
from  the  ilium  and  assists  the  gluteus  medius  in  rotating  the  thigh  inward. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  there  is  a V-shaped  interval  between  the  tensor 
fascire  and  the  gluteus  maximus  muscles  (Plate  62,  Fig.  i).  This  interval  is 
occupied  by  the  gluteus  medius  muscle,  which  is  of  great  importance  in  walking 
and  running  as  it  supports  the  trunk  on  the  limb  upon  which  the  weight  is 
received  while  the  opposite  limb  is  not  in  contact  with  the  ground. 

The  ilio-psoas  muscle  is  described  on  page  61. 

The  pyriformis  muscle  (Plate  59,  Fig.  1)  is  below  the  gluteus  medius.  It 
arises  within  the  pelvis  by  digitations  from  between  the  sacral  foramina,  passes 
out  through  the  great  sciatic  notch,  and  is  inserted  by  a tendon  into  the  upper 
border  of  the  great  trochanter. 

{Atiion  of  the  pyriformis  muscle. — It  assists  in  rotating  the  thigh  outward. 


99 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art 


The  obturator  internus  muscle  and  the  two  ^emelli  muscles  (Plate  59,  Fig.  i)  are 
deep-seated.  The  former  arises  within  the  pelvis,  and  as  its  tendon  passes  out  of 
the  lesser  sciatic  notch  it  is  reinforced  by  the  two  gemelli  muscles,  and  the  com- 
bined tendon  resulting  is  inserted  into  the  great  trochanter  below  the  pyriformis. 

Action  of  the  obturator  and  gemelli  muscles. — The  chief  action  of  these 
three  muscles  is  to  rotate  the  thigh  outward ; but  when  the  body  is  in  the 
sitting  position  they  become  abductors  of  the  thigh. 

The  obturator  externus  muscle  (Plate  57,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  pubes,  and 
its  tendon  blends  wiih  that  of  the  quadratus  femoris  muscle. 

Action  of  the  obturator  externus  muscle. — It  serves  to  rotate  the  thigh 
outward,  and  also  assists  the  adductor  muscles  and  is  regarded  as  properly 
belonging  to  that  group. 

The  quadratus  femoris  muscle  (Plate  69,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  tuberosity 
of  the  ischium  and  is  inserted  at  the  back  of  the  great  trochanter. 

Action  of  the  quadratus  femoris  muscle. — It  assists  in  rotating  the  thigh 
outward. 

The  skin  over  the  buttock  is  thick,  coarse,  and  peculiarly  provided  with 
fat  in  the  sub-cutaneous  fascia,  which  is  usually  more  developed  in  females 
than  in  males.  The  buttocks  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a deep  median 
groove  which  extends  from  the  hollow  or  small  of  the  back  to  the  perineum. 
The  changes  in  the  position  of  the  lower  extremities  naturally  affect  the  surface 
forms  of  the  buttocks.  The  gluteal  fold  which  separates  the  buttock  from  the 
back  of  the  thigh  is  more  or  less  obliterated  according  to  the  degree  of  flexion 
at  the  hip-joint.  The  amount  of  fat,  especially  in  the  female,  in  this  region, 
modifies  very  much  the  surface  forms,  so  that  the  buttocks  are  more  rounded 
in  women  than  in  men. 

The  muscles  of  the  thigh  are  the  sartorius  and  the  extensor  group  in  front, 
the  three  adductors  and  the  gracilis  internally,  the  tensor  fasciae  on  the  outer 
side,  and  the  three  hamstring  muscles  behind. 

The  tensor  fasciae  muscle  (Plate  67)  arises  from  the  anterior  and  outer 
part  of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  descends  to  be  inserted  into  the  fascia 
lata  (page  loi^)  about  four  inches  below  the  great  trochanter. 


lOO 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

Action  of  the  tensor  fasciae  muscle. — It  makes  the  fascia  lata  tense,  thereby 
steadying  the  pelvis  upon  the  femur. 

The  sartorins  muscle  (Plate  r>8,  Fig.  2)  is  a very  long,  flat,  ribbon-like  band 
of  parallel  fibres  arising  from  the  top  of  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium, 
and  passes  obliquely  across  the  front  of  the  thigh  to  the  inner  side,  and  then 
descends  vertically  as  far  as  the  knee  where,  behind  the  internal  condyle  of 
the  femur,  it  becomes  tendinous,  and  is  inserted  by  a flat  semi-lunar  expansion 
into  the  inner  and  front  part  of  the  tibia  below  its  tubercle  (Plate  62,  Fig.  2). 
The  latter  expansion  covers  the  insertions  of  the  tendons  of  the  gracilis  and 
semi-tendinosus  muscles  (Plate  58,  Fig.  2). 

Action  of  the  sartorins  muscle. — The  action  of  the  sartorius  muscle  is  very 
complex.  It  assists  in  flexing  and  abducting  the  hip,  at  the  same  time  rotating 
the  leg  inward,  so  that  with  the  action  of  the  gracilis  and  the  semi-tendinosus 
the  knee  can  be  Hexed.  It  serves  also  to  steady  the  pelvis  on  the  thigh.  Acting 
from  above,  it  first  bends  the  leg  upon  the  thigh  and  then  the  thigh  upon 
the  pelvis,  and  then  rotates  the  thigh  outward.  Acting  from  the  leg  it  bends 
the  pelvis  upon  the  thigh  and  then  rotates  it  slightly  inward.  The  muscle 
was  called  sartorins  from  the  action  of  the  two  fellow  muscles  assisting  in 
crossing  the  legs,  as  in  the  squatting  position  assumed  by  tailors  when  at  their 
work.  It  is  the  longest  muscle  in  the  body,  and  being  superficial  through 
Its  entire  length,  produces  a peculiar  surface-marking  in  children  before  they 
have  learned  to  stand  or  walk.  This  is  indicated  by  a spiral  crease  across  the 
middle  of  the  thigh  and  is  due  to  the  habitual  tendency  to  cross  the  legs  at 
that  period  of  life  (Plate  121).  In  the  well-developed  adult  the  sartorius, 
when  in  action,  presents  a slightly  curved  elevation  over  its  upper  portion, 
while  its  lower  portion  produces  a furrow,  owing  to  the  strap-like  manner 
in  which  it  compresses  the  adductor  muscles.  The  sartorius  should  be 
carefully  studied  by  sculptors,  as  a thorough  understanding  of  it  is  essential 
in  modeling  the  figure  in  action. 

The  entire  shaft  of  the  femur  is  covered  by  the  extensor  muscles  (Plate 
58,  Fig.  2),  the  rectus,  the  vastus  externus,  the  vastus  internus,  and  the 
crureus.  Collectively  these  four  muscles  form  the  quadriceps  extensor 
femoris. 


lOI 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  rectus  femoris  muscle  (Plate  57,  Fig.  2)  is  interesting,  as  its  structure 
affords  an  illustration  of  adaptation  of  great  power  within  a short  range  of 
action.  It  arises  by  two  portions — one,  the  reflected  portion,  from  the  upper 
margin  of  the  acetabulum,  and  the  other  from  the  anterior  inferior  spine  of 
the  ilium.  The  two  portions  join  at  an  acute  angle  about  a hand’s  breadth 
below  the  groin.  There  is  a median  tendinous  line  from  this  point  to  the 
lower  border  of  the  sartorius,  from  which  the  fleshy  fibres  arise,  descending 
in  two  lateral  series  diverging  from  each  other,  and  produce  a bi-penniform 
appearance  (Plate  67,  Fig.  2).  The  deep  fibres  descend  vertically  and  are 
inserted  into  the  united  tendinous  aponeurosis  of  the  adjacent  muscles  about 
the  patella. 

Action  of  the  rectus  femoris  muscle. — It  serves,  with  its  associate  muscles, 
to  extend  the  leg  upon  the  thigh.  When  in  action  the  rectus  produces  the 
anterior  bulge  on  the  surface  of  the  thigh,  and  when  the  action  is  forcible  its 
tendon  produces  a marked  depression  or  fattening  above  the  knee. 

The  vastus  externus  muscle  (Plate  52,  Fig.  i,  and  Plate  59,  Fig.  2)  arises 
from  the  base  of  the  great  trochanter,  and  from  the  outer  border  of  the  linea 
aspera.  Its  fibres  descend  to  blend  with  the  adjacent  tendon  of  the  rectus, 
and  to  be  inserted  into  the  outer  border  of  the  patella  at  its  upper  part. 

The  crureiis  muscle  is  practically  a secondary  portion  of  the  vastus 
externus. 

The  vaslus  inlernus  muscle  (Plate  52,  Fig.  i,  and  Plate  59,  Fig.  2)  is 
smaller  than  the  externus,  and  arises  by  a tendon  from  the  inner  border  of 
the  linea  aspera,  and  its  fibres  pass  obliquely  to  be  inserted  into  the  adjacent 
borders  of  the  crureus  and  rectus  muscles  and  to  the  inner  border  of  the 
patella  as  far  as  its  lower  border.  It  is  consequently  more  tleshy  low'er  down 
than  any  of  the  other  muscles  of  the  extensor  group. 

zActiou  of  the  vaslus  iuteruus  muscle. — When  this  muscle  is  in  action  it 
produces  the  decided  bulge  above  the  knee  at  the  inner  side  and  lower  part 
of  the  thigh. 


The  chief  function  of  the  quadriceps  mass  of  extensor  muscles  is  to 
extend  the  leg  upon  the  thigh  and  thus  straighten  the  lower  limb,  as  in 


102 


Auatumy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


walking  or  kicking.  Acting  from  the  leg,  as  in  standing,  the  muscles  serve 
to  support  the  thigh  upon  the  head  of  the  tibia  and  thus  maintain  the  entire 
weight  of  the  body.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  vasti  and  crureus  are 
attached  to  the  femur  only,  while  the  rectus  is  attached  by  its  double  origin 
to  the  pelvis,  so  that  the  latter  either  flexes  the  thigh  or  draws  the  pelvis 
forward. 

The  adductor  group  of  mnscles  (Plate  f38.  Fig.  i)  extend  along  the  inner 
side  of  the  thigh  from  the  pelvis  to  the  femur;  they  are  the  gracilis,  the 
adductor  longus,  the  pectinius,  the  adductor  brevis,  and  the  adductor  magnus. 

The  gracilis  muscle  (Plate  67,  Fig.  2)  is  the  innermost  muscle  of  the  thigh 
and  arises  from  the  pubis  and  passes  its  tendons  below  the  knee  joint,  behind 
the  sartorius,  and  above  the  semi-tendinosus  to  be  inserted  on  the  front  of 
the  head  of  the  tibia  (Plate  68,  Fig.  2).  It  is  beneath  the  skin  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  its  course  and  produces  the  graceful  outline  of  the  inner  side 
of  the  thigh. 

jdction  of  the  gracilis  muscle. — It  cooperates  with  the  semi-tendinosus  in 
rotating  the  leg  inward  when  the  knee  is  about  to  be  bent. 

The  adductor  longns  muscle  (Plate  68,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  pubis  and 
expands  to  be  inserted  into  the  linea  aspera. 

The  pectinens  muscle  (Plate  68,  Fig.  1)  is  separated  by  a small  space  from 
the  above  muscle.  It  arises  from  the  pubis  and  is  inserted  into  the  linea 
aspera  near  the  root  of  the  lesser  trochanter. 

The  adductor  brevis  muscle  (Plate  68,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  pubis  below 
the  longus  and  pectineus  muscles,  and  is  inserted  into  the  line  between  the 
linea  aspera  and  the  lesser  trochanter. 

The  adductor  magnns  muscle  (Plate  68,  Fig.  i)  arises  mainly  from  the 
ischium  and  forms  into  a broad  fleshy  mass  \vhich  is  inserted  into  the  whole 
length  of  the  linea  aspera  and  into  the  adductor  tubercle  of  the  internal 
condyle  of  the  femur  (Plate  69,  Fig.  i). 

Action  of  the  adductor  mnscles  of  the  thigh. — The  combined  action  of  the 
adductor  group  of  muscles  is  chiefly  in  balancing  the  pelvis  steadily  on  the 
thigh,  as  in  standing  on  one  leg,  or  in  reversing  that  action  to  adduct  the  thighs, 

103 


Anatoiny  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

at  the  same  time  causing  them  to  rotate  outwardly.  In  walking,  they  also 
assist  in  drawing  forward  the  lower  extremity.  The  special  action  of  the  tw^o 
adductor  magnus  muscles  serves  in  horseback  riding  to  grip  the  saddle  or 
the  sides  of  the  horse  with  the  knees. 

At  the  back  of  the  thigh  are  the  three  flexor  muscles,  or  hamstring 
muscles.  They  all  arise  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  (Plate  GO,  Fig.  i). 

The  biceps  femoris  muscle  (Plate  60,  Fig.  i)  consists,  as  its  name  indicates, 
of  two  portions.  The  long  head  arises  from  the  ischial  tuberosity,  in  close 
connection  with  the  semi-tendinosus,  and  at  the  lower  part  of  the  thigh  the 
short  head  arises  from  the  outer  border  of  the  linea  aspera  within  an  inch  of 
the  condyle.  The  fibres  from  these  two  heads  form  one  common  tendon, 
which  is  inserted  into  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  head  of  the  fibula 
(Plate  60.  Fig.  i). 

Action  of  the  biceps  femoris  muscle. — The  biceps  serves  to  flex  the  knee 
or  to  extend  the  hip.  When  the  knee  is  bent  it  also  causes  the  leg  to  rotate 
outward. 

The  semi-tendinosns  muscle  (Plate  60,  Figs.  i and  2)  arises  with  the  biceps 
and  forms  a fleshy  mass,  in  the  midst  of  which  there  is  a tendinous  inter- 
section. It  is  inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  tibia 
(Plate  60,  Fig.  i). 

The  senii-membranosns  muscle  (Plate  60,  Figs.  i and  2,  and  Plate  62,  Fig. 
2)  arises  in  the  ischium  by  a flat  tendon  which  descends  nearly  half  way 
down  the  thigh  beneath  the  other  muscles,  and  ends  in  a large  fleshy  mass 
which  is  inserted  into  the  inner  and  back  part  of  the  head  of  the  tibia. 

^Action  of  the  hamstring  muscles. — These  muscles  serve  to  flex  the  leg 
upon  the  thigh.  They  are  peculiar  in  being  too  short  to  allow  of  full  flexion 
of  the  hip  while  the  leg  is  extended,  it  should  be  noted  that  they  possess 
the  function  of  ligaments  owing  to  their  attachments  passing  over  the  two 
joints  of  the  hip  and  the  knee.  When  the  pelvis  is  fixed,  the  thigh  can  only 
be  moderately  flexed  while  the  knee  is  straight : but  as  soon  as  the  kiiee  is 
flexed  the  hamstrings  are  relaxed  and  the  thigh  can  be  entirely  flexed  From 
below  their  action  is  to  support  tlie  pelvis  and  prevent  the  trunk  from  falling 


104 


/Ifutoniv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


forward.  This  is  well  shown  in  feats  of  strength  where  the  body  is  thrown 
backw'ard. 

The  tendons  of  the  hamstring  muscles  form  the  boundaries  of  the  ham 
or  popliteal  space  at  the  back  of  the  knee. 

The  skin  over  the  thigh  is  coarse  and  thick  on  the  outer  and  posterior 
surfaces,  but  fine  and  thin  on  the  inner  and  anterior. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  deep  fascia  of  the  thigh  is  a very  dense, 
strong  membrane,  which  invests  the  muscles  like  a tightly-htting  sleeve, 
thereby  maintaining  them  in  position  and  augmenting  their  powder.  It  is  called 
the  fascia  lata  (Plate  60,  Fig.  2,  and  Plate  (>2,  Fig.  i),  and  is  strongest  on  the 
outer  side,  where  the  tendons  of  the  glutens  maximus  and  tenser  femoris 
muscles  are  continued  into  it.  This  part  of  the  fascia  lata  is  called  the  ilio- 
tibial band,  because  it  descends  from  the  ilium  to  be  inserted  into  the  outer 
part  of  the  head  of  the  tibia.  It  is  an  impoi'tant  factor  in  maintaining  the 
erect  position. 

On  the  front  of  the  leg  there  are  four  muscles  (Plates  64  and  67),  the 
tibialis  anticus,  the  extensor  longus  digitorum,  the  peroneus  tertius  and  the 
extensor-  longus  hallucis. 

The  tibialis  antic  ns  muscle  (Plate  64,  Fig.  1)  arises  from  the  head  of  the 
tibia  and  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft  and  the  adjacent  part  of  the  inter-osseous 
membrane.  The  fibres  are  aggregated  into  a long,  flat  tendon,  which  begins 
about  the  lower  third  of  the  leg  and  descends  obliquely  over  the  front  of 
the  ankle  to  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  (Plate  64,  Fig.  2).  It  is  attached  to 
the  internal  cuneiform  bone  and  the  base  of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the 
great  toe. 

Action  of  the  tibialis  anlicns  muscle. — It  serves  to  flex  the  ankle  and  to 
turn  the  foot  outward.  When  the  foot  is  the  fixed  point,  as  in  standing,  it 
assists  in  balancing  the  body  at  the  ankle. 

The  extensor  longus  digitorum  muscle  (the  long  extensor  of  the  toes) 
(Plate  64,  Fig.  3,  and  Plate  67,  Fig.  .2)  arises  from  the  outer  part  of  the  head 
of  the  tibia  from  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia  and  inter-osseous  membrane,  and 
its  fibres  terminate  in  a penniform  manner  after  a long  tendon,  which  descends 

105 


Anatomy  in  its  T\elation  to  Art. 

in  front  of  the  ankle  and  divides  into  four  slips,  which  pass  over  the  dorsum 
of  the  foot  and  are  inserted  into  the  second  and  third  phalanges  of  the  four 
outer  toes.  Each  of  these  tendons  expands  over  the  base  of  the  correspond- 
ing first  phalanx  into  a sheath  above  that  joint  and  receives  the  tendon  of 
the  extensor  brevis  muscle. 

The  peroncus  tcrtiiis  muscle  (Plate  67,  Fig.  i)  is  really  a portion  of  the 
preceding  muscle.  Its  fibres  arise  from  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft  of  the 
hbula  and  the  interosseous  membrane,  and  its  tendon  is  inserted  into  the 
dorsal  surface  of  the  base  of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe. 

Auction  of  the  extensor  longiis  digiforiim  and  the  peroneiis  tertiiis  muscles. 
— The  extensor  longus  digitorum,  besides  extending  the  toes,  extends  the 
ankle-joint.  The  peroneus  tertius  extends  the  foot  and  raises  its  outer  border. 
The  latter  muscle,  acting  with  the  tibialis  anticus,  serves  to  raise  the  foot,  and 
thus  performs  an  important  part  in  progression. 

The  extensor  longus  hallucis  muscle  (the  long  extensor  of  the  great  toe) 
(Plate  64,  Fig.  2)  arises  from  the  inner  border  of  the  fibula  and  the  inter- 
osseous membrane,  and  its  tendon  is  inserted  into  the  base  of  the  second  or 
ungual  phalanx  of  the  great  toe  (Plate  67,  Fig.  ^). 

Action  of  the  extensor  longus  hallucis  muscle.  — It  serves  to  extend  the 
great  toe  and,  when  in  action,  its  tendon  can  be  seen  both  at  the  dorsum  of 
the  foot  and  at  the  ankle. 

The  muscles  on  the  outer  side  of  the  leg  are  the  peroneus  longus  and  the 
peroneus  brevis. 

The  peroneus  longus  muscle  (Plate  67,  Fig.  i)  is  the  most  superficial.  It 
arises  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  fibula  and  its  tendon  descends  behind  the 
external  malleatus  over  the  outer  side  of  the  os  calcis  under  the  cuboid  bone, 
whence  it  crosses  the  sole  of  the  foot  obliquely  (Plate  68),  to  be  inserted 
into  the  outer  side  of  the  base  of  the  first  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

The  peroneus  brevis  muscle  (Plate  67,  Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  fibula,  and  its  tendon  passes  also  behind  the  external  malleatus  and 
separating  from  the  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus,  is  inserted  at  the  back 
of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe. 

Action  of  the  peroneus  longus  and  brevis  muscles. — The  action  of  these 
muscles  raises  the  outer  border  of  the  foot,  so  that  the  chief  part  of  the 

106 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


weight  is  thrown  on  to  the  ball  of  the  great  toe.  Acting  from  the  first,  they 
also  serve  in  balancing  the  body  .on  one  leg. 

llie  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  leg  are  arranged  in  two  layers.  The 
superficial  layer  constitutes  the  calf  of  the  leg  and  consists  of  the  gastrocne- 
mius, plantaris  and  soleus  muscles. 

77/6-’  gaslrociiemiiis  {I he  double-bellied)  muscle  (Plate  65,  Fig.  i)  arises  by 
two  strong  heads  from  the  femur  above  the  outer  and  inner  condyles.  The 
inner  head  is  larger,  longer  and  more  muscular  than  the  outer  (Plate  65,  Fig. 
ij,  and  they  both  broaden  as  they  descend  until  they  terminate  below  the 
middle  of  the  leg  in  the  tendon  of  Achilles. 

The  planlaris  muscle  (Plate  65,  Fig.  2)  is  the  analogue  of  a similar  muscle 
which  is  especially  developed  in  the  bear.  It  is  often  wanting  in  man.  It 
arises  above  the  outer  head  of  the  gastrocnemius  and  terminates  in  a very 
long,  delicate  tendon,  which  descends  between  the  gastrocnemius  and  the 
soleus  muscles  to  the  inner  side  of  the  tendon  of  Achilles,  to  be  inserted  at 
the  inner  part  of  the  os  calc  is. 

The  soleus  muscle  (Plate  65,  Fig.  2)  is  a broad,  flat  muscle,  resembling  the 
shape  of  a sole-fish.  It  arises  from  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  fibula 
and  forms  the  oblique  line  of  the  tibia  (Plate  63,  Fig.  2).  The  fleshy  portion 
of  the  soleus  bulges  laterally  beyond  the  borders  of  the  gastrocnemius  and 
its  tendinous  expansion  blends  with  the  tendon  of  Achilles. 

The  tendon  of  Achilles  is  the  strongest  of  all  the  tendons  in  the  body. 
It  is  inserted  into  the  back  part  of  the  os  calcis,  and  measures  about  four 
and  a half  inches  in  length,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  breadth,  and 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  tendon  expands  somewhat  at  its 
insertion  (Plate  65), 

Action  of  the  gastrocnemius  and  soleus  muscles. — The  muscles  of  the  calf 
and  their  common  tendon  serve  chiefly  to  raise  the  body  on  to  the  toes. 
The  peculiar  disposition  of  the  two  heads  of  the  gastrocnemius  and  the 
attachment  of  the  tendon  of  Achilles,  by  passing  over  the  knee  joint  and 
the  ankle  joint,  give  the  gastrocnemius  the  power  of  bending  one  of  these 
joints  while  it  flexes  the  other,  as  in  walking.  If  acting  from  the  heel,  as 
in  standing,  the  muscles  assist  in  balancing  the  body  by  maintaining  the  leg 
perpendicularly  upon  the  foot. 

107 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  deep  layer  of  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  leg  are  the  flexor  longus 
digitorum,  the  flexor  longus  hallucis  and  the  tibialis  posticus. 

The  flexor  longus  digitorum  muscle  (the  long  flexor  of  the  toes)  (Plate  69, 
Fig.  i)  arises  from  the  tibia,  and  its  fibres  terminate  in  a tendon  which  passes 
behind  the  inner  ankle  to  the  sole  of  the  foot  and  is  inserted  by  four  slips  into 
the  bases  of  the  ungual  phalanges  of  the  four  outer  toes  (Plate  68).  In  the  sole 
of  the  foot,  before  it  subdivides,  the  tendon  receives  the  insertion  of  the  flexor 
accessorius  muscle.  The  digital  tendons  also  pierce  the  corresponding  tendons 
of  the  flexor  brevis  muscle  before  they  pass  to  their  insertions,  the  same  way 
that  the  similar  flexor  tendons  to  the  fingers  are  arranged  in  the  hand. 

The  plexor  longus  hallucis  muscle  (the  long  flexor  of  the  great  toe)  (Plate 
65)  arises  from  the  lower  part  of  the  fibula  and  the  interosseus  membrane, 
and  its  tendon  passes  beneath  the  snslentacnlnm  tali  (Plate  68)  to  be  inserted 
into  the  base  of  the  ungual  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

cAclioii  of  the  flexor  digilornm  muscle. — The  action  of  the  long  flexor 
muscle  is  to  raise  the  body  on  the  great  toe,  being  especially  concerned  in 
walking  and  running. 

The  tibialis  posticns  muscle  (Plate  67,  Fig.  2)  is  very  deeply  situated 
beneath  the  preceding  muscle.  It  arises  from  the  shaft  of  the  tibia  and  the 
interosseous  membrane,  and  its  tendon  passes  beneath  that  of  the  flexor  longus 
digitorum  (Plate  68)  behind  the  internal  malleolus,  and  crosses  over  the  sole  of 
the  foot,  to  be  inserted  into  the  scaphoid  and  internal  cuneiform  bones. 

Action  of  the  tibialis  poslicns  muscle. — it  flexes  and  turns  the  foot  inward. 

The  extensor  brevis  digitornm  muscle  (the  short  extensor  of  the  toes)  (Plate 
66,  Fig.  ^)  arises  from  the  outer  part  of  the  os  calcis  and  passes  obliquely 
beneath  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  longus  digitorum  (page  105')  and  termi- 
nates in  four  tendons,  which  are  attached  to  the  four  inner  toes. 

There  are  four  dorsal  interosseous  muscles  (between  the  bones)  in  the  foot 
(Plate  67,  Fig.  3)  which  in  their  disposition  and  attachment  closely  resemble 
the  similar  muscles  of  the  hand. 

Action  of  the  dorsal  interosseous  muscles. — These  muscles  tend  to  draw  the 
toes  away  from  the  line  of  axis  of  the  second  toe. 

There  are  three  plantar  interosseous  muscles  (Plate  69,  Fig.  i)  which  also 
resemble  their  analogues  in  the  hand. 

108 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


Action  of  the  plantar  interosseous  muscles. — They  tend  to  draw  the  toes 
toward  the  line  of  axis  of  the  second  toe. 

The  two  sets  of  interossei  muscles  chiefly  produce  flexion  of  the  toes, 
although  they  also  serve  to  draw  the  toes  to  or  from  one  another,  according 
to  the  side  of  the  phalanges  upon  which  they  are  inserted. 

The  jtexor  brevis  digitorum  muscle  (the  short  flexor  of  the  toes)  (Plate 
f)8)  arises  from  the  inner  part  of  the  os  calcis,  and  passing  forward,  divides 
into  four  tendons,  which  pass  to  the  four  outer  toes  superficially  to  the 
tendons  of  the  flexor  longus  muscle  (page  lo^).  At  the  bases  of  the  first 
phalanges  the  tendons  divide  so  as  to  allow  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  longus 
to  pass  between  them,  and  then  they  again  unite  and  are  inserted  into  the 
second  phalanges  (Plate  68). 

77/c  Jtexor  accessorius  muscle  (the  accessory  flexor)  (Plate  68,  Fig.  ^)  arises 
beneath  the  flexor  brevis  from  the  os  calcis  and  is  inserted  into  the  tendon  of 
the  flexor  longus  before  it  subdivides,  although  its  attachment  is  especially  into 
that  part  of  the  flexor  longus  tendon  which  supplies  the  third  and  fourth  toes. 

Beneath  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  longus  there  are  four  tiny  muscles 
called  lumbricales  (like  earth  worms). 

Action  of  the  jtexor  brevis  eligitorum  muscle. — The  flexor  brevis  digitorum 
flexes  the  second  phalanges  on  the  first  phalanges  and  then  flexes  the  latter 
on  their  meta-tarsal  bones. 

The  flexor  accessorius  muscle  serenes  to  connect  the  obliquity  of  the 
main  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus,  which  is  due  to  the  projection  backw'ard 
of  the  heel.  The  lumbricales  act  in  the  same  way  as  their  analogues  in  the 
hand  (page  84). 

The  abductor  hallucis  muscle  (the  abductor  of  the  great  toe)  (Plate  68, 
Fig.  2)  arises  from  the  inner  part  of  the  os  calcis,  and  arching  over  the  ten- 
dons w’hich  pass  round  the  inner  ankle,  is  inserted  into  the  base  of  the  first 
phalanx  of  the  great  toe  and  the  inner  sesamoid  bone. 

Action  of  the  abductor  hallucis  muscle. — It  flexes  the  first  phalanx  while 
it  extends  the  second,  although  it  is  capable  of  abducting  the  great  toe 
slightly  inward  from  the  middle  line. 

The  flexor  brevis  hallucis  muscle  (the  short  flexor  of  the  great  toe)  (Plate 
68,  Fig.  3)  arises  from  the  cuboid  bone  and  divides  into  two  portions,  which 

lOg 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


pass  over  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe  on  each  side  of  the  tendon  of 
ihe  flexor  longus  hallucis,  and  they  are  inserted  into  the  outer  and  inner  sides 
of  the  second  phalanx  of  the  great  toe  and  the  corresponding  sesamoid  bones. 

The  sesamoid  {seed-like)  hones,  in  relation  to  their  tendons,  serve  as  a 
pulley  through  which  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  hallucis  can  act  freely 
without  being  pressed  upon,  as  in  walking  or  running. 

The  adductor  obliqnns  hallucis  muscle  (the  oblique  adductor  of  the  great 
toe)  (Plate  68,  Fig.  2)  is  a strong  little  muscle  arising  from  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  meta-tarsal  bones  and  passes  obliquely  across  the  foot,  to  be  inserted 
into  the  external  sesamoid  bone  and  the  adjacent  part  of  the  second  phalanx 
of  the  great  toe. 

The  transversalis  pedis  muscle  (the  transverse  muscle  of  the  foot)  (Plate  68, 
Fig.  3)  arises  by  three  slips  from  the  fourth  and  fifth  meta-tarso-phalangeal 
joints  and  passes  transversely  to  be  inserted  into  the  other  sesamoid  bone 
with  the  above  muscle. 

The  abductor  minimi  digiti  muscle  (the  abductor  of  the  little  toe)  (Plate 
69,  Fig.  3)  is  on  the  outer  side  of  the  foot,  and  arises  from  the  os  calcis  and 
is  inserted  into  the  meta-tarsal  bone  and  the  third  phalanx  of  the  little  toe. 

The  flexor  brevis  minimi  digiti  muscle  (the  short  flexor  of  the  little  toe) 
arises  from  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe  and  is  inserted  into  the  base 
of  the  third  phalanx  of  the  little  toe. 

The  opponens  minimi  digiti  muscle  (the  opposing  muscle  of  the  little  toe) 
is  part  of  the  above  muscle,  and  is  inserted  into  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the 
little  toe. 

The  plantar  fascia  (Plate  69,  Fig.  3)  is  the  strong  condensation  of  the  deep 
fascia  which  covers  the  tendons  in  the  sole  of  the  foot.  It  extends  from  the 
os  calcis  to  the  head  of  the  meta-tarsal  bones,  and  is  well  shown  in  Plate  69, 

It  assists  materially  in  supporting  the  antero-posterior  arch  of  the  foot 
(page  96). 

The  annular  ligaments  at  the  ankle  (Plate  67,  Fig.  3)  are  condensations  of 
the  deep  fascia,  which  serve  to  confine  the  tendons  of  the  various  muscles  as 
they  pass  from  the  leg  to  the  foot.  Each  tendon  has  a separate  compartment 
as  it  passes  through  the  annular  ligament,  and  is  also  supplied  with  a synovial 
bursa  to  prevent  friction. 


1 10 


Anatomy  In  its  Relation  to  Art. 


The  skin  over  the  knee  is  very  movable  in  front.  It  is  dense  in  relation 
to  the  patella  and  the  tubercle  of  the  tibia,  but  at  the  sides  and  back  of  the 
joint  it  is  thinner.  The  patella  can  always  be  readily  felt  through  the  integ- 
ument, its  inner  border  being  more  marked  than  its  outer.  When  the  lower 

limb  is  extended  so  that  the  leg  is  supported  by  the  contraction  of  the  quad- 
riceps muscle,  its  tendons,  the  patella  and  the  ligamentum  patelhe  are  all  in 
prominent  relief,  the  patella  being  rigidly  immovable  against  the  lower  end  of 
the  femur,  but  if  the  leg  is  supported  in  the  same  position  so  that  the  quad- 
riceps is  relaxed,  the  patella  can  be  readily  moved  from  side  to  side.  In 
flexion  the  patella  glides  into  the  hollow  between  the  condyles  of  the  femur, 

so  that  in  kneeling  it  is  firmly  fixed  and  receives  the  brunt  of  the  pressure. 

The  skin  over  the  leg  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  deep  fascia  than 
it  is  over  the  thigh.  Over  the  shin  it  is  separated  from  the  bone  only  by 
the  subcutaneous  fascia. 

The  skill  in  front  of  and  behind  the  ankle  and  over  the  dorsal  surface  of 
the  foot  is  thin  and  loose.  On  the  sole  of  the  foot  the  epidermis  is  remark- 
ably dense  and  thick,  especially  over  the  heel  and  the  outer  border  of  the 
foot,  and  at  the  balls  of  the  toes,  which  are  the  parts  ordinarily  subjected  to 
pressure  when  the  foot  is  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Along  the  inner 
border  of  the  foot  and  in  the  hollow  of  the  arch  of  the  foot  the  skin  is  more 
adherent  and  marked  with  wrinkles,  which  pass  mostly  toward  the  clefts 
between  the  three  inner  toes.  Like  the  skin  of  the  palm  of  the  hand,  the 
skin  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  generally  adherent  to  the  part  which  it  covers. 


PLATE  56. 


Figf.  I.  Drawingf  from  a photograph  of  the  Fig.  2.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the 


front  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip, 
thigh  and  knee  (with  outline). 

1.  The  crest  of  the  ilium. 

2.  The  anterior  superior  spinous  process  of 

the  ilium. 

3.  Tlie  head  of  the  femur. 

4.  Tlie  external  trochanter  of  tlie  femur. 

5.  The  internal  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

6.  The  shaft  of  the  femur. 

7.  Tlie  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

8.  The  patella. 

9.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

10.  The  pubic  bone. 

11.  The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

12.  The  adductor  tubercle. 

13.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 


back  of  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip, 
thigh  and  knee  (with  outline). 

1.  The  sacrum. 

2.  The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

3.  The  adductor  tubercle. 

4.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

5.  The  upper  end  of  the  tibia. 

C.  riie  crest  of  the  ilium. 

7.  The  head  of  the  femur. 

8.  The  external  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

9.  The  internal  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

10.  The  linea  aspera  of  the  femur. 

I I.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

12.  The  upper  end  of  the  fibula. 


PLATE  57. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram  showing  the  two  vasti  and 
obturator  externus  muscles  in  relation 
to  the  skeleton  of  the  right  hip,  thigh 
and  knee. 

1.  The  greater  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  obturator  externus  muscle. 

3.  The  lesser  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

4.  The  vastus  externus  muscle. 

5.  The  cut  tendon  of  the  rectus  femoris 

muscles. 

6.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

7.  The  ligamentum  patella. 

■ 8.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

9.  The  spine  of  the  pubis. 

10.  The  ischium. 

11.  The  space  occupied  by  the  adductor 

muscles. 

12.  The  vastus  internus  muscle. 

13.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

14.  The  superior  articular  surface  of  the  tibia. 

15.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  the  tensor  vaginae 
femoris,  the  rectus  femoris  and  the 
gracilis  muscles  in  relation  to  the  skel- 
eton of  the  right  hip,  thigh  and  knee. 

1.  The  anterior  superior  spinous  process  of 

the  ilium. 

2.  The  attachment  of  the  rectus  muscle  to 

the  anterior  superior  inferior  spine  of 
the  ilium. 

3.  The  tensor  vaginae  fasciae  femoris  muscle. 

4.  The  reflected  head  of  the  rectus  femoris 

muscle. 

5.  The  position  of  the  greater  trochanter. 

6.  The  fascia  lata. 

7.  The  rectus  femoris  muscle. 

8.  Space  occupied  hy  the  vastus  externus 

muscle. 

9.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

10.  The  ligamentum  patella. 

1 1.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

12.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

13.  The  pubis. 

14.  The  space  occupied  by  the  adductor 

muscles. 

15.  The  gracilis  muscle. 

16.  The  space  occupied  by  the  vastus  inter- 

nus muscle. 

17.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

18.  The  attachment  of  the  tendon  of  the  gra- 

cilis muscle  on  the  head  of  the  tibia. 


PLATE  57 


PLATE  A8. 


Fig.  t.  Diagram  showing  the  gluteus  minimis 
and  adductor  muscles  of  the  right 
thigh  in  relation  to  the  skeleton. 

1.  The  gluteus  minimus  muscle. 

2.  The  lesser  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

5.  The  pectineus  muscle. 

4.  The  adductor  brevis  muscle. 

5.  The  adductor  longus  muscle. 

6.  The  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

7.  The  space  occupied  by  the  vastus  exter- 

nus  muscle. 

8.  The  femoral  arch, 
g.  The  pubis. 

10.  The  space  occupied  by  the  gracilis  muscle. 

1 1.  The  adductor  tubercle. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  all  the  muscles  of 
the  right  thigh  in  relation  to  the  skel- 
eton {from  the  front). 

1.  The  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdo- 

men. 

2.  The  anterior  superior  spinous  process  of 

the  ilium. 

3.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

4.  The  tensor  vaginae  femoris  muscle. 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

5.  The  position  of  the  lesser  trochanter  of 

the  femur. 

6.  The  pectineus  muscle. 

7.  The  adductor  longus  muscle. 

8.  The  vastus  externus  muscle, 
g.  The  fascia  lata. 

10.  The  rectus  femoris  muscle. 

11.  The  ligamentum  patellae. 

12.  The  attachment  of  the  vastus  externus 

muscle  at  the  top  of  the  patella. 

13.  The  ligament  of  Poupart. 

14.  The  spermatic  cord. 

15.  The  gracilis  muscle. 

16.  The  sartorius  muscle. 

17.  The  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

18.  The  vastus  internus  muscle. 

ig.  The  tendon  of  the  sartorius  muscle. 

20.  The  attachment  of  the  vastus  internus 

muscle  at  the  side  of  the  patella. 

21.  The  tendon  of  the  sartorius  muscle. 

22.  The  tendon  of  the  gracilis  muscle. 

23.  The  tendon  of  the  semi-tendinosus  mus- 

cle. 


PLATE  58 


PLATE  59. 


Fig.  J.  Diagram  showing  the  external  rotator 
muscles  of  the  hip,  and  the  great  ad- 
ductor muscle  of  the  thigh  in  relation 
to  the  skeleton  { from  the  back). 

1.  The  coccyx. 

2.  The  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

3.  The  adductor  tubercle  of  the  femur. 

4.  The  gluteus  minimus  muscle. 

5.  The  pyriformis  muscle. 

6.  The  gemellus  superior  muscle. 

7.  The  obturator  internus  muscle. 

8.  The  greater  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

9.  The  ctuadratus  femoris  muscle. 

10.  The  upper  portion  of  the  adductor  mag- 

nus muscle. 

11.  The  space  occupied  by  the  vastus  ex- 

ternus  muscle. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  the  gluteus  medius 
muscle  and  the  attachments  of  the  two 
vasti  muscles  on  the  back  of  the  right 
thigh. 

1.  The  ischium. 

2.  The  lesser  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

3.  The  space  occupied  by  the  adductor  and 

hamstring  muscles. 

4.  The  linea-aspera  of  the  femur. 

5.  The  vastus  internus  muscle. 

6.  The  gluteus  medius  muscle. 

7.  The  gemellus  superior  muscle. 

8.  The  greater  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

9.  The  vastus  externus  muscle. 


PLATE  59 


i 

t 


PLATE  60. 


Fig.  I.  Diagram  showing  the  hamstring 
muscles  and  tendons  on  the  back  of 
the  right  thigh  and  knee. 

1.  The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

2.  The  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

3.  The  semi-tendinous  muscle. 

4.  The  biceps  femoris  muscle. 

5.  The  gracilis  muscle. 

6.  The  semi-membranous  muscle. 

7.  The  vastus  internus  muscle. 

8.  The  tendon  of  the  gracilis  muscle. 

9.  The  tendon  of  the  semi-membranosus 

muscle. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  semi-tendinosus  mus-  ! 

cle. 

1 1 . The  space  occupied  by  the  glutei  muscles. 

12.  The  space  occupied  by  the  vastus  exter- 

nus  muscle. 

13.  The  short  head  of  the  biceps  femoris 

muscle. 

14.  The  lower  portion  of  the  semi-membrano- 

sus muscle. 

15.  The  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle  at  the 

head  of  the  fibula. 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  showing  all  the  muscles  of  the 
right  hip  and  thigh  { from  the  back  . 

1.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

2.  The  gracilis  muscle. 

3.  The  semi-tendinosus  muscle. 

4.  The  semi-membranosus  muscle. 

5.  The  biceps  femoris  muscle. 

C.  The  vastus  internus  muscle. 

7.  The  tendonofthesemi-tendinosusmuscle. 

8.  The  tendon  of  the  semi-membranosus 

muscle. 

9.  The  tendon  of  the  gracilis  muscle. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  sartorius  muscle. 

1 1.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

12.  The  gluteus  medius  muscle. 

13.  The  greater  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

14.  The  fascia  lata. 

15.  The  adductor  magnus  muscle. 

16.  The  vastus  externus  muscle. 

17.  The  short  head  of  the  biceps  femoris 

muscle. 

18.  The  lower  portion  of  the  semi-membrano- 

sus muscle. 

I 19.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 


PLATE  60 


PLATE  61 


Drawings  from  photographs  of  the  outside  and  inside  of  tl*’,  skeleton  of  the 
right  hip,  thigh  and  knee  (with  outlines). 


Fig.  I. 

1.  The  crest  of  the  ilium. 

2.  The  posterior  inferior  spinous  process  of 

the  ilium. 

3.  The  acetabulum. 

4.  The  coccyx. 

5.  The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

6.  The  shaft  of  the  femur. 

7.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

8.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

Q.  The  anterior  superior  process  of  the  ilium. 

10.  The  anterior  inferior  spinous  process  of 

the  ilium. 

1 1.  The  head  of  the  femur. 

12.  The  external  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

13.  The  patella. 

14.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 


i Fig-  2. 

I I.  The  anterior  superior  spinous  process  of 
the  ilium. 

2.  The  promontory  of  the  sacrum. 

3.  The  pubic  bone. 

4.  The  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

5.  The  shaft  of  the  femur. 

6.  The  patella, 

7.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

8.  The  position  of  the  head  of  the  femur, 
g.  The  coccyx. 

10.  The  lesser  trochanter  of  the  femur. 

11.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

! 12.  Ihe  head  of  the  fibula. 


PLATE  62. 


Fig.  t.  Diagram  of  all  the  muscles  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  right  thigh. 

1.  The  crest  of  the  ilium. 

2.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

3.  Position  of  the  great  sciatic  notch. 

4.  The  position  of  the  coccyx. 

3.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

6.  The  fascia  lata. 

7.  The  semi-membranosus  muscle. 

8.  The  biceps  muscle, 
g.  The  biceps  muscle. 

10.  The  expansion  of  the  fascia  lata  at  the 

knee. 

11.  The  outer  head  of  the  gastrocnemius 

muscle. 

12.  The  attachment  of  the  biceps  muscle  on 

the  head  of  the  fdiula. 

I 3.  The  calf  of  the  leg. 

14.  The  gluteus  medius  muscle. 

15.  The  tensor  vaginae  femoris  muscle. 

16.  The  sartorius  muscle. 

17.  The  rectus  femoris  muscle. 

18.  The  vastus  externus  muscle, 
ig.  The  patella. 

20.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 


Fig. 


2. 

3- 

4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 

10. 

1 1 . 
12. 
13- 
14. 
15- 
16. 
17- 

18. 

19. 

1 20. 

I 

i 


2.  Diagram  of  all  the  muscles  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  right  thigh. 

The  anterior  superior  spinous  process  of 
the  ilium. 

The  iliacLis  muscle. 

The  pectineal  line. 

The  inner  wall  of  the  pelvis. 

The  adductor  longus  muscle. 

The  gracilis  muscle. 

The  sartorius  muscle. 

The  rectus  femoris. 

The  vastus  internus  muscle. 

The  patella. 

The  tendon  of  the  sartorius  muscle. 

The  promontory  of  the  sacrum. 

The  pyriformis  muscle. 

The  tip  of  the  coccyx. 

The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

The  semi-membranosus  muscle. 

The  semi-tendinosus  muscle. 

The  tendon  of  the  gracilis  muscle. 

The  tendon  of  the  semi-tendinosus 
muscle. 

The  tendon  of  the.  semi-membranosus 
muscle. 


PLATE 


Fig.  I.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and  | 
foot  {from  the  front).  ' 

1.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur.  | 

2.  The  patella.  ' 

3.  The  head  of  the  fibula.  ^ 

4.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula.  j 

5.  The  external  malleolus.  ! 

0.  'I'he  cuboid  bone.  i 

7.  The  tuberosity  of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  ^ 

of  the  little  toe. 

8.  riie  adductor  tubercle  of  the  femur, 
g.  The  tubei'Lle  of  the  tibia. 

10.  The  crest  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

11.  The  internal  malleolus. 

12.  The  astragalus. 

13.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

14.  The  internal  cuneiform  bone. 

15.  The  head  of  the  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the 

great  toe. 

16.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  great  toe.  i 

17.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  great  toe.  | 


Fig.  2.  Drawing  from  a photograph  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and 
foot  {from  the  back). 


1.  The  adductor  tubercle  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  oblique  line  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

4.  The  internal  malleolus. 

5.  The  os  calcis. 

6.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

7.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

8.  The  head  of  the  fibula, 
g.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

10.  The  external  malleolus. 

1 1 . The  cuboid  bone. 

12.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe. 


PLATE  63 


» 


i 

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s 


i 


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I 

I 

M 


i -8 


\ 


PLATE  64. 


Diagframs  of  the  muscles  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  the  right  leg  { from  the  front). 


Fig.  J.  The  attachments  of  the  anterior  tibial 
muscle. 

1.  The  head  of  tlie  tibia. 

2.  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 

3.  Tlie  space  occupied  by  the  peronei 

muscles. 

4.  The  external  malleolus. 

5.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

6.  The  position  of  the  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

7.  The  position  of  the  soleus  muscle. 

8.  The  position  of  the  flexor  longus  digi- 

torum  muscle. 

9.  The  internal  malleolus. 

10.  The  insertion  of  the  tendon  of  the  tibialis 
anticus. 

Fig.  2.  The  attachments  of  the  chief  extensor 
muscle  of  the  great  toe. 

1.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

2.  The  extensor  proprius  pollicis  muscle. 

3.  The  external  malleolus. 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

4.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

5.  The  crest  of  the  tibia. 

6.  The  internal  malleolus. 

7.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  proprius  pol- 

licis muscle  passing  over  the  ankle. 

8.  The  insertion  of  the  tendon  of  the  exten- 

sor proprius  pollicis  muscle. 

Fig.  3.  The  attachments  of  the  long  extensor 
muscle  of  the  toes. 

1.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

2.  The  extensor  longus  digitorum  muscle. 

3.  The  external  malleolus. 

4.  The  long  tendons  passing  to  the  several 

toes. 

5.  The  crest  of  the  tibia. 

6.  The  internal  malleolus. 


PLATE  65. 


Diagframs  of  the  muscles  in  relation  to  the  bones  of  right  leg  ( from  the  back). 


Fig-  I.  The  attachments  of  the  superficial  mus- 
cles of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg. 

1.  I he  adductor  tubercle  on  the  internal 

condyle  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  inner  portion  of  the  gastrocnemius 

muscle. 

3.  The  internal  malleolus  of  the  tibia. 

4.  The  tendo  Achillis. 

5.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur.  . 

6.  The  outer  portion  of  the  gastrocnemius 

muscle. 

7.  The  external  malleolus  of  the  fibula. 

Fig.  2.  The  attachments  of  the  deeper  muscles 
of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg. 

1.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  tendon  of  the  plantaris  muscle. 

3.  The  internal  malleolus  of  the  tibia. 

4.  riie  tendon  of  the  plantaris  muscle. 

5.  The  cut  tendon  of  the  gastrocnemius 

muscle. 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

6.  The  plantaris  muscle. 

7.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

8.  The  soleus  muscle. 

9.  The  external  malleolus  of  the  fibula. 

Fig.  3.  The  attachments  of  the  deeper  muscles 
of  the  right  leg. 

1.  The  popliteus  muscle. 

2.  The  flexor  longus  pollicis  muscle. 

3.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

muscle. 

4.  The  internal  malleolus  of  the  tibia. 

5.  The  external  condyle  of  the  femur. 

6.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

7.  The  external  malleolus  of  the  fibula. 

8.  The  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus 

muscle. 


PLATE  66. 


Drawings  from  photographs. 


Fig.  J.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and 
foot,  with  outline  {from  the  outer  side). 

1.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

2.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

3.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

4.  The  external  malleolus. 

5.  The  os  calcis. 

6.  The  patella. 

7.  The  head  of  the  tibia. 

8.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

9.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

10.  The  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 

11.  The  astragalus. 

12.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

13.  The  middle  cuneiform  bone. 

14.  The  outer  cuneiform  bone. 

15.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  second  toe. 

Fig.  2.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  knee,  leg  and 
foot,  with  outline  ( from  the  inner 
side). 

1.  The  patella. 

2.  The  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 

3.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia. 

4.  The  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

5.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

6.  The  middle  cuneiform  bone. 

7.  The  inner  cuneiform  bone. 

8.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe. 

9.  The  proximal  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

10.  The  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 

11.  The  head  of  the  fibula. 

12.  The  shaft  of  the  fibula. 

13.  The  astragalus. 

14.  The  os  calcis. 

Fig.  3.  The  skeleton  of  the  right  ankle  and 
foot,  with  outline  {from  abene). 

1.  The  external  malleolus. 

2.  The  os  calcis. 

3.  The  cuboid  bone. 

4.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

5.  The  internal  malleolus. 

6.  The  astragalus. 

7.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

8.  The  outer  cuneiform  bone. 

9.  The  middle  cuneiform  bone. 

10.  The  inner  cuneiform  bone. 


PLATE  67. 


Figf.  t.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  on 
the  outside  of  the  right  leg  and  ankle. 

1.  The  plantaris  muscle. 

2.  The  outer  portion  of  the  gastrocnemius 

muscle. 

3.  The  peroneus  longus  muscle. 

4.  The  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

5.  The  peroneus  brevis  muscle. 

6.  The  peroneus  longus  muscle. 

7.  The  tendo  Achillis. 

8.  The  external  malleolus. 

9.  The  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus  mus- 

cle. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  peroneus  brevis  mus- 
- cle. 

1 1 . The  patella. 

12.  The  ligamentum  patella. 

13.  The  extensor  longus  digitorum  muscle. 

14.  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 

1 5.  The  tendons  of  the  extensor  longus  digi- 

torum muscle. 

16.  The  tendons  of  the  peroneus  tertius. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  and  tendons 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  right  leg  and 
ankle. 

1.  The  patella. 

2.  The  ligamentum  patella. 

3.  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 

4.  The  crest  of  the  tibia. 

5.  The  tendon  of  the  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 

6.  The  position  of  the  head  of  the  fibula. 

7.  The  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

8.  The  soleus  muscle. 

Q.  The  flexor  longus  digitorum  muscle. 


Fig.  2 — continued. 

10.  The  tendo  Achillis. 

11.  The  tendon  of  the  plantaris  muscle. 

12.  The  internal  malleolus. 

13.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

muscle. 

14.  The  tendon  of  the  tibialis  posticus  muscle. 

15.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  digitorum 

muscle. 

Fig.  3.  The  tendons  on  the  front  of  the  right 
ankle  and  foot. 

1.  The  extensor  longus  digitorum  muscle. 

2.  The  upper  portion  of  the  annular  liga- 

ment. 

3.  The  tendons  of  the  extensor  longus  digi- 

torum muscle. 

4.  The  lower  portion  of  the  annular  liga- 

ment. 

5.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  to  the 

fourth  toe. 

6.  The  tendon  of  the  dorsal  interosseous 

muscle  to  the  third  toe. 

7.  The  tendon  of  the  dorsal  interosseous 

muscle  on  the  fibular  side  of  the  second 
toe. 

8.  The  flexor  longus  digitorum  muscle. 

9.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  proprius  pol- 

licis muscle. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 

11.  The  tendon  of  the  dorsal  interosseous 

muscle  on  the  tibial  side  of  the  second 
toe. 

12.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  proprius  pol- 

licis muscle. 


PLATE  68. 


Fig".  I.  The  plantar  surface  of  the  skeleton  of 
the  right  foot,  with  outline  (from  a 
photograph). 

1.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe. 

2.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  fourth  toe. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

4.  The  cuboid  bone. 

5.  The  os  calcis. 

6.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

7.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

8.  The  sesamoid  bones. 

g.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  second  toe. 

10.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe. 

11.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  middle  toe. 

12.  The  internal  cuneiform  bone. 

13.  The  external  cuneiform  bone. 

14.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

15.  The  astragalus. 

16.  The  sustentaculum  tali  of  the  os  calcis. 

Fig.  2.  The  abductor  and  adductor  muscles  of 
the  great  toe. 

1.  The  adductor  pollicis  pedis  muscle. 

2.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

3.  The  os  calcis. 

4.  The  tendon  of  the  abductor  pollicis  pedis 

muscle. 

5.  The  tendon  of  the  adductor  pollicis  pedis 

muscle. 

6.  The  abductor  pollicis  pedis  muscle. 

7.  The  position  of  the  sustentaculum  tali  of 

the  os  calcis. 

Fig.  3.  The  short  flexor  muscles  of  the  great 
and  little  toes. 

1.  The  transversus  pedis  muscle. 

2.  The  flexor  brevis  minimi  digiti  muscle. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

4.  The  os  calcis. 

5.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  brevis  pollicis 

muscle. 

6.  The  flexor  brevis  pollicis  muscle. 

7.  The  position  of  the  external  cuneiform 

bone. 

8.  The  scaphoid  bone. 


Fig.  4.  The  relations  of  the  principal  flexor 
tendons  in  the  sole  of  the  right  foot. 

1.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

2.  The  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus 

muscle. 

3.  The  os  calcis. 

4.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

muscle  between  the  sesamoid  bones. 

5.  The  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus 

muscle. 

6.  The  internal  cuneiform  bone. 

7.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  digi- 

torum  muscle. 

8.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

9.  The  astragalus. 

10.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  digi- 

torum  muscle. 

11.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

muscle. 

Fig.  5.  The  accessory  flexor  and  lumbrical 
muscles  in  the  sole  of  the  right  foot. 

1.  The  lumbrical  muscle  of  the  little  toe. 

2.  The  lumbrical  muscle  of  the  fourth  toe. 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

■ 4.  The  outer  origin  of  the  flexor  accessorius 

' muscle. 

: 5.  The  lumbrical  muscle  of  the  middle  toe. 

i 6.  The  lumbrical  muscle  of  the  second  toe. 

I 7.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  digi- 
torum  muscle. 

! 8.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

! 9.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  digi- 

j torum  muscle. 

10.  The  inner  origin  of  the  flexor  accessorius 

] muscle. 

j Fig.  6.  The  short  flexor  muscle  of  the  toes. 

I.  The  short  flexor  tendon  of  the  little  toe. 

: 2.  The  short  flexor  tendon  of  the  fourth  toe 

3.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

4.  The  short  flexor  tendon  of  the  second  toe. 

5.  The  short  flexor  tendon  of  the  middle  toe. 
j 6.  The  flexor  brevis  digitorum  muscle. 


PLATE  69. 


Fig.  i.  The  abductor  muscle  of  the  little  toe,  j 
and  the  three  plantar  interossei  mus- 
cles of  the  right  foot. 

1.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  little  toe. 

2.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  fourth  toe. 

3.  The  interosseous  muscle  to  the  middle  toe. 

4.  The  abductor  minimi  digiti  pedis  muscle. 

Fig.  2.  Superficial  view  of  all  the  muscles  of 
the  sole  of  the  right  foot  complete. 

1.  The  lumbrical  muscle  and  flexor  tendon 

to  the  little  toe. 

2.  The  lumbrical  muscle  and  flexor  tendon 

to  the  second  toe. 

3.  The  flexor  brevis  minimi  digiti  muscle. 

4.  The  flexor  brevis  digitorum  muscle. 

5.  The  abductor  minimi  digiti  muscle. 

6.  The  lumbrical  muscle  and  flexor  tendon 

to  the  middle  toe. 

7.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis 

pedis  muscle. 

8.  The  flexor  brevis  pollicis  muscle. 

9.  The  abductor  pollicis  pedis  muscle. 

10.  The  cut  end  of  the  plantar  fascia. 

Fig.  3.  The  plantar  fascia. 

1.  Transverse  slips  of  the  plantar  fascia 

passing  over  the  bases  of  the  toes. 

2.  The  plantar  fascia  dividing  gver  the  meta- 

tarso  phalangeal  joints. 

3.  The  plantar  fascia. 

4.  Deep  fascia  ensheathing  the  muscles  of 

the  outside  of  the  foot. 

5.  The  attachment  of  the  plantar  fascia  to 

the  os  calcis. 

6.  Slip  of  the  plantar  fascia  passing  to  the 

base  of  the  great  toe. 

7.  Deep  fascia  ensheathing  the  muscles  on 

the  inside  of  the  foot. 

Fig.  4.  The  dorsal  surface  of  the  skeleton  of 
the  right  foot,  with  outline  from  a 
photograph). 

1.  The  ungual  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

2.  The  first  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

3.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe. 

4.  The  internal  cuneiform  bone. 

5.  The  middle  cuneiform  bone. 

6.  The  scaphoid  bone. 


Fig.  4 — continued. 

7.  The  astragalus. 

8.  The  os  calcis. 

9.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  or  the  fourth  toe. 

10.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe. 

1 1.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  middle  toe. 

12.  The  meta-tarsal  bone  of  the  second  toe. 

13.  The  external  cuneiform  bone. 

14.  The  styloid  process  of  the  meta-tarsal 

bone  of  the  little  toe. 

15.  The  cuboid  bone. 

16.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  os  calcis. 

I Fig.  5.  The  four  dorsal  interossei  muscles  of 
the  right  foot. 

1.  Tile  first  phalanx  of  the  great  toe. 

2.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  on  the 
tibial  side  of  the  second  toe. 

3.  The  internal  cuneiform  bone. 

4.  The  astragalus. 

5.  The  os  calcis. 

6.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  on  the 
fibular  side  of  the  second  toe. 

7.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  on  the 
fibular  side  of  the  middle  toe. 

8.  The  dorsal  interosseous  muscle  on  the 
fibular  side  of  the  fourth  toe. 

9.  The  external  cuneiform  bone. 

10.  The  cuLoid  bone. 

1 1 . The  os  calcis. 

Fig.  6.  The  extensor  brevis  digitorum  muscle 
of  the  right  foot. 

1.  The  short  extensor  tendon  to  the  great 

toe. 

2.  The  short  extensor  tendon  to  the  second 

toe. 

3.  The  cut  tendon  of  the  extensor  longus 

pollicis  muscle. 

4.  The  internal  cuneiform  bone. 

5.  The  scaphoid  bone. 

6.  The  short  extensor  tendon  to  the  fourth 

toe. 

7.  The  short  extensor  tendon  to  the  middle 

toe. 

8.  The  extensor  brevis  digitorum  pedis  mus- 

cle. 

9.  The  os  calcis. 


PLATE  69 


PLATE  70. 


Fig.  I 

Fig.  2 
Fig;.  3 

Fig.  4 


. The  rig;ht  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and 
the  weigfht  received  on  the  balls  of 
the  toes  {from  the  inner  side). 

. The  left  foot  resting-  firmly  on  the 
gfround  {from  the  front). 

I.  The  left  foot  with  the  heel  sligfhtly 
raised  and  the  weight  lightly  received 
on  the  toes  ( from  the  back). 

. The  right  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and 
the  weight  received  on  the  balls  of  the 
toes  {from  the  back). 


The  right  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and 
the  weight  received  on  the  toes  as  in 
walking. 

Fig.  6.  The  left  foot  pointing  as  in  stepping 
forward. 

Fig.  7.  The  left  foot  with  the  heel  raised  and 
the  weight  received  on  the  toes  as  in 
walking. 

Fig.  8.  The  right  foot  pendant  ( from  tbe  inner 
side). 

Fig.  9.  The  left  foot  pendant  C from  the  outer 

side). 


Photograph  of  a woman's  foot  in  various  positions. 

Fig.  5. 


N.  B. — Figs.  1,  2,  3 and  4 show  positions  of  the  feet  as  in  dancing. 


PLATE  70 


Fig.  3 Fig.  4 


Fig.  7 


I • 


A- 


*1 


. r . 

v'V 


>' 


' 2t 


j. 


. tiidtomy  ill  its  Relation  to  Art. 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATION  OF  THE 
ENTIRE  SKELETON. 

The  lieight,  breadth  and  depth  of  the  outward  form  of  a man  or  woman 
depend  upon  the  general  character  and  proportion  of  the  bony  frame- 
work of  the  body.  (Plates  2,  4 and  6.) 

From  the  skull  to  the  bones  of  the  feet  the  human  skeleton  is  constructed 
f(H-  tlie  erect  position.  The  upper  limbs  are  specially  attached  to  the  trunk 
by  the  shoulder  girdle  (page  70),  which  is  incomplete  behind  so  as  to  allow 
freedom  for  the  purposes  of  tact  and  prehension,  while  the  lower  limbs  are 
recei\-ed  at  the  pelvic  girdle  (page  89),  which  is  complete,  so  as  to  enable  them 
to  support  the  trunk.  It  should  be  obser\'ed  that  the  separate  parts  of  both 
the  upper  and  lower  limbs,  the  arm,  forearm  and  hand  in  the  one,  and  the 
thigh,  leg  and  foot  in  the  other,  diminish''  in  length  in  regular  order  from  the 
trunk  to  the  fingers  and  toes. 

The  thorax  (page  ^ ) is  wider  transversely  than  it  is  deep,  which  allows 
the  weight  of  the  trunk  to  be  distributed  to  the  two  lower  limbs  to  advantage 
when  in  the  erect  position. 

The  vertebral  column  (page  49)  presents  compensating  curvatures  which 
admit  of  elasticity  and  insure  security  in  the  various  movements ; and  the 
pcKis  (page  89)  is  broad  and  strong,  serx  ing  as  a basis  for  the  whole  trunk 
in  whatever  direction  the  weight  be  transmitted. 

The  upper  limbs  (page  69)  are  not  as  long  as  the  lower.  Besides  the 
incompleteness  of  the  shoulder  girdle,  the  facts  that  the  upper  limbs  are  only 
connected  by  the  collar  bones  to  the  sternum,  and  that  the  shoulder  joint  is 
capable  of  a range  of  motion  in  all  directions,  indicate  that  they  are  not 
designed  for  support.  The  inter-dependence  of  the  shoulder,  elbow  and  vTist 
joints,  and  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  movable  bone  of  the  forearm  (the 
radius)  which  enables  the  hand  to  be  pronated  or  supinated,  adapt  the  upper 
limb  to  reach  any  part  of  the  body.  The  joints  of  the  upper  limb  all  bend 
in  the  same  direction.  The  wrist  is  in  a line  with  the  forearm,  and  the  bones 

113 


Anatomy  in  its  Kclaiion  to  Art. 


1 


of  the  fingers  and  thumb  are  specially  arranged  for  opposing  one  another, 
useful  for  the  most  delicate  sense  of  touch  as  well  as  for  grasping  objects 
strongly. 

The  lower  limbs  (page  91)  are  longer  than  the  upper.  The  thighs  and 
legs  are  long  in  proportion  to  the  body.  The  joints  are  adapted  so  that  they 
bend  in  opposite  directions  alternately,  as  is  necessary  for  progression.  The 
feet  are  relatively  large  and  at  right  angles  to  the  legs,  so  that  they  can  be 
placed  on  the  ground  in  order  to  receive  the  weight  of  the  body.  The 
great  toe  is  not  opposable  to  the  other  toe.s  as  for  purposes  of  grasping,  but 
is  characteristically  large  and  strong  to  assist  in  steadying  the  weight. 

Although  it  is  true  that  much  of  the  difference  between  the  male  and 
the  female  forms  depend  upon  the  differences  in  the  skeletons,  yet  it  requiies 
the  trained  eye  of  an  anatomist  to  distinguish  them. 

The  height  of  the  female  skeleton  is  less  than  that  of  the  male,  as  a rule. 
There  is  less  difference  to  be  found  in  the  length  of  the  trunk  than  there  is 
in  the  lower  limbs.  The  illustrations  (Plates  2,  4 and  6)  show  this  better 
than  can  be  impressed  by  any  description.  Generally  speaking,  every  bone 
in  the  female  skeleton  is  shorter,  more  slender,  smoother  and  weaker  than 
the  corresponding  bone  in  the  male.  The  bones  in  the  male  skeleton  are 
usually  rougher  and  stronger. 


T14 


; 


PLATE  71. 


This  figure  represents  the  skeleton  of  a man  in  the  sitting  posture,  the  body  resting  upon 
both  ischial  tuberosities.  The  head  is  raised  and  turned  toward  the  left  shoulder,  while  the  right 
fore-arm  is  resting  on  the  left  knee  which  is  crossed  over  the  right.  The  right  hand  is  out- 
stretched. The  whole  suggesting  an  ordinary  position  assumed  by  one  who  is  engaged  in 
argument. 

The  line  of  gravity  passes  from  the  neck  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow-head.  The 
position  of  the  right  foot  and  of  the  left  arm  assist  the  figure  to  retain  its  poise  on  the  bench.  If 
they  were  changed,  the  figure  could  not  remain  seated  without  moving  further  back,  thereby 
bringing  the  right  knee  in  a line  perpendicular  to  the  right  heel. 

This  plate  also  shows  the  curvatures  of  the  spinal  column  as  they  would  be  influenced  by 
assuming  this  position. 

N.  B. — This  figure  is  modified  from  a plate  by  Martinez,  first  published  in  1660.  (See 
page  118.) 


PLATE  72. 


Fig:,  Back  view  of  the  skeleton  of  a man  in 
the  standing'  position,  with  the  right 
arm  extended  as  b'y  a gesture  of  in- 
quiry, and  the  left  hand  is  resting  on 
the  handle  of  a pickax,  the  head  of 
which  is  on  the  ground  so  that  it 
assists  the  muscular  action  in  sup- 
porting the  weight  of  the  body.  The 
attitude  and  surface  form  indicate  a 
man  of  advancing  years,  well  devel- 
oped and  accustomed  to  hard  labor. 


Fig.  2.  Represents  the  skeleton  of  a woman  in 
the  sitting  position  with  both  arms 
raised  as  in  exclamatory  action.  It 
illustrates  the  curvatures  in  the  neck 
and  loins  peculiar  to  woman,  and  the 
contrast  between  the  surface  form  of 
the  female  figure  in  this  position  and 
that  of  the  male  form,  as  in  Fig.  I, 
is  well  shown  by  the  outlines. 


N.  B. — These  figures  are  also  modified  from  a plate  by  Martinez,  first  published  in  1660. 
(See  page  1 18.) 


PLATE  72 


PLATE  73. 


Figf.  U Drawing  from  a photograph  of  a man  Fig.  2.  Drawing  of  the  skeleton  in  its  relation 
running.  ■ to  the  surface  form,  in  the  same  po- 

sition as  in  Fig.  I. 

N.  B. — The  camera  caught  the  man’s  picture  while  he  was  entirely  off  the  ground,  and 
at  the  moment  when  both  the  upper  and  lower  limbs  were  fully  extended.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  arm  is  thrown  forward  on  the  side  on  which  the  leg  is  thrown  backward,  and  that  on 
the  side  on  which  the  arm  is  thrown  backward  the  leg  is  advanced,  thus  assisting  to  maintain 
the  balance. 


PLATE  73 


Anatujny  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  SKELETON  ON 
THE  SURFACE  FORM. 

The  shape  and  character  of  the  features  and  of  the  head,  and  especially 
the  traits  of  family  and  of  race,  depend  in  a great  measure  upon  the 
conformation  of  the  cranium  and  of  the  bones  of  the  face.  N(j  tw'o 
skulls  are  ever  exactly  alike.  The  variations  of  form  of  the  living  head  are 
dependent  upon  degrees  of  development  in  size  and  shape  of  the  bones 
which  give  origin  to  the  individual  features.  There  are  certain  types  notice- 
able in  families  which  underlie  these  individual  distinctions  and  should  be 
observed  by  artists  as  characteristic  of  the  bones  and  usually  indicative  of 
race. 

The  special  influence  exerted  upon  the  surface  by  the  several  bones  of 
the  skull  is  particularly  described  in  the  text  relating  to  these  bones. 

The  curves  of  the  human  back  are  due  to  the  curvatures  of  the  vertebral 
column,  as  will  be  best  appreciated  by  comparing  the  back  of  a model  with 
that  of  a skeleton  in  different  positions  (Plates  72,  77,  86  and  92). 

The  only  parts  of  the  vertebral  column  which  are  subcutaneous  are  the 
spinous  processes,  and  these  occupy  the  longitudinal  furrow  caused  by  the 
lateral  bulging  of  the  masses  of  erector  muscles.  Of  the  spinous  processes 
that  of  the  seventh  cervical  vertebra  is  most  conspicuous. 

The  surface  forms  dependent  upon  the  component  bones  of  the  thorax 
are  chiefly  noticeable  at  the  sides  of  the  chest,  where  the  ribs  form  oblique 
elevations  extending  downward  from  the  axillae,  or  arm-pits.  Also,  the  outlines 
of  the  ribs  can  be  distinguished  in  front,  especially  below  the  borders  of  the 
great  pectoral  muscles.  In  forced  expiration  and  in  certain  positions  of  the 
body,  especially  when  supporting  a weight  from  above  (Plate  42),  the  curved 
arch  formed  by  the  costal  cartilages  is  more  or  less  seen.  The  arch  is  wider 
in  short  individuals  than  in  tall  ones,  and  in  general  conformation  the  bony 

II5 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


cage  corresponds  to  the  stature  of  the  person  possessing  it,  the  capacity  of 
the  chest-wall  varying  with  the  degree  of  expansion  or  contraction  during 
respiration. 

The  junction  of  the  first  and  second  bones  of  the  sternum  is  indicated 
by  a ridge  on  the  surface,  as  at  this  joint  the  cartilages  of  the  second  ribs 
are  attached  (page  i^i),  and  it  is  possible  to  determine  through  the  skin  the 
third,  fourth  and  hfth  ribs  by  counting  down  from  this  ridge  in  numerical 
order. 

The  different  planes  of  the  three  portions  of  the  sternum  naturally 
influence  the  outline  of  the  chest  as  seen  in  profile  (Plates  24  and  38).  When 
the  pectoral  muscles  are  well  developed  the  sternum  occupies  a median  furrow 
\\4iich  is  wider  above  and  below  and  narrower  in  the  middle. 

The  mobility  of  the  shoulder  girdle  produces  many  subtle  changes  of 
surface  forms,  which  are  difficult  to  define,  notwithstanding  that  the  main 
portions  of  the  clavicles  and  scapulm  are  subcutaneous. 

The  shaft  of  the  humerus,  or  arm-bone,  mainly  affects  the  outer  surface 
by  influencing  the  shape  of  the  muscles  attached  to  it,  as  it  is  covered  by 
muscles  on  all  sides. 

At  the  elbow,  the  prominences  of  the  condyles  of  the  humerus  and  the 
upper  end  of  the  ulna  are  almost  as  conspicuous  on  the  surface  as  they  are 
in  the  skeleton.  They  are  deserving  of  close  attention  and  should  be 
examined  with  the  joint  in  every  degree  of  flexion  and  extension,  so  as  to 
appreciate  the  changes  of  relation  w'hich  the  prominences  bear  to  one  another 
in  each  position.  The  point  of  the  elbow  is  formed  by  the  olecranon  process 
of  the  ulna  in  all  positions. 

The  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  the  radius  and  the  ulna,  being  generally’ 
parallel,  give  a flattened  form  to  this  part  of  the  limb.  The  upper  portions 
of  these  bones,  excepting  at  the  point  of  the  elbow,  are  covered  by  the 
muscles.  The  styloid  processes  of  the  lower  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna 
are  subcutaneous:  that  of  the  ulna  is  more  prominent  in  pronation. 

1 16 


Anatomy  in  its  lictativn  to  Art. 


The  bones  of  the  hand  influence  the  outer  surface  chiefly  from  their 
dorsal  aspect.  The  elevation  of  the  knuckle-joint  of  the  middle  finger 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  others,  and  gives  character  in  delineating  the 
first.  The  shape  of  the  thumb  is  dependent  upon  the  articulation  of  its 
first  phalanx  with  the  trapezium,  and  it  is  rarely  the  same  in  any  two 
persons.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  angle  at  which  the  thumb  is 
extended  from  the  outspread  hand  differs  so  widely  in  individuals.  Every 
artist  should  pay  particular  attention  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  thumb, 
as  it  contributes  more  than  any  other  feature  to  the  character  of  the 
hand. 

The  pelvis  only  influences  the  surface  in  a remote  way,  and  the  parts 
which  are  most  conspicuous  are  the  crest  and  the  spines  of  the  ilia.  The 
pelvic  girdle  being  complete  furnishes  an  important  factor  in  judging  of  the 
relations  of  the  prominences  on  the  two  sides  of  the  pelvis,  because  they 
always  retain  their  relations  in  a!!  positions  of  the  body,  vertical,  horizontal 
or  inclined.  When  a man  is  standing  with  both  feet  on  a level  surface,  the 
corresponding  spinous  processes  of  the  pelvis  must  be  in  a horizontal  line. 
Any  inclination  of  one  spinous  process,  as  in  standing  on  one  leg,  must  result 
in  a corresponding  degree  of  elevation  of  the  other. 

The  sculptor  should  understand  this,  and  bear  in  mind  that  the  pelvis 
moves  on  the  thighs  as  a whole  solid  mass  under  all  circumstances. 

The  shaft  of  the  femur,  or  thigh  bone,  like  the  humerus  is  covered 
everywhere  by  the  muscles  and  imparts  its  anterior  curved  form  to  the  thigh, 
thereby  giving  the  effect  of  strength  to  the  whole  limb.  Tlie  lower  end  of 
the  femur  is  broadened  just  above  the  knee  and  gives  the  flattened  appear- 
ance at  this  locality.  When  standing  with  the  thigh  rotated  outward  there 
is  a depression  over  the  great  trochanter;  when  the  legs  are  crossed,  this 
depression  becomes  an  eminence. 

At  the  knee,  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  contributes  greatly  to  the  sur- 
face form.  The  condyles  are  always  prominent,  especially  the  internal  condyle, 
although  it  is  more  thickly  covered  than  the  outer.  The  patella,  or  knee-pan, 
is  always  marked,  appearing  as  a triangular  prominence. 


117 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  two  bones  of  the  leg,  the  tibia  and  the  fibula,  are  always  in  the 
same  relation  to  one  another,  and  the  crest  of  the  tibia  (shin-bone)  offers  a 
greater  extent  of  subcutaneous  surface  than  any  other  bone  in  the  skeleton. 
The  fibula  is  always  at  the  outer  and  back  part  of  the  leg.  At  the  ankle, 
the  lateral  projections  of  the  tibia  and  fibula,  called  malleoli,  are  always  prom- 
inent. The  outer  malleolus,  belonging  to  the  fibula,  is  considerably  lower 
and  less  prominent  than  the  inner  malleolus  belonging  to  the  tibia  (Plates 
55  and  56). 

The  bones  of  the  foot,  like  those  of  the  hand,  chiefly  influence  the 
upper  surface.  The  arch  of  the  instep  is  due  to  the  shape  of  the  bones  form- 
ing it.  The  posterior  prominence  of  the  heel-bone,  the  os  calcis,  is  also 
conspicuous  and  gives  character  to  the  back  of  the  foot.  The  great  toe  is 
always  a distinguishing  feature.  Much  stress  has  been  usually  laid  on  the 
second  toe  being  longer  than  the  others  in  the  well-formed  foot.  It  is  more 
frequently  so  in  tall  and  slim  persons.  It  is  generally  equal  in  length  to  the 
great  toe. 

The  figures  on  Plates  71  and  72  were  drawn,  in  i66o,  by  a Spanish  artist 
named  Chrysostom  Martinez.  They  were  republished,  with  slight  modifica- 
tions, by  J.  Rubens  Smith,  of  Boston,  in  1827.  They  have  been  redrawn 
by  the  author,  with  corrections  as  to  the  character  of  the  bones,  and  adapted 
by  him  in  preference  to  introducing  original  drawings  of  the  same  nature 
which  he  had  intended.  They  serve  the  double  purpose  of  being  artistically 
of  value  as  eli^iating  the  influence  of  motion  on  external  form,  and  of  show- 
ing that  thoJWie  idea  of  illustrative  teaching  was  entertained  as  long  as  two 
hundred  and  forty  years  ago.  The  fore-shortening  and  proportions  of  the 
figures  are  certainly  admirable. 


118 


-7 


PLATE  74. 


Photograph  of  a woman's  skeleton,  in  the  sitting  posture,  by  the  side  of  a spinning-wheel, 
with  the  left  foot  resting  upon  a stool  and  the  right  foot  on  the  treadle  of  the  wheel.  The  hands 
are  raised  as  in  separating  the  threads  of  flax  so  as  to  pass  them  round  the  wheel.  This  plate 
is  to  be  compared  with  Plate  75. 


PLATE  75. 


Photograph  of  a woman  spinning,  to  be  compared  with  the  photograph  of  the  skeleton 
in  the  same  position,  shown  in  Plate  74. 


V 


PLATE  76. 


Fig.  J.  Photograph  of  a woman’s  skeleton  Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  same 

standing  with  the  right  arm  raised  to  position  as  the  skeleton  in  Fig.  1. 

support  a jar  as  if  resting  on  the  head 

{from  the  front).  I Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  the  same  woman  in  the 

same  position  as  in  Fig.  2 (with 
I drapery). 

N.  B. — These  figures,  as  well  as  those  on  Plate  77,  aftord  an  opportunity  of  comparing 

the  relation  of  the  skeleton  to  the  surface  form,  and  tlie  effect  of  the  surface  form  upon  the 

folds  of  the  drapery. 


PLATE  77. 


Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  a woman's  skeleton 
standing  with  the  right  arm  raised  to 
support  a Jar  as  if  resting  on  the  head 

{from  the  back ). 


Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  position 
of  the  skeleton  in  Fig.  t. 

Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  the  same  woman  in  the 
same  position  as  in  Fig.  2 (with 
drapery ). 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MUSCLES  ON 
THE  SURFACE  FORM. 

Naturally  tlie  supertkial  muscles  exert  p;reater  influence  upon  the 
surface  than  tlie  deeper-seated  ones,  especially  when  the  body  is 
at  rest:  this  is  true  in  a less  degree  when  the  body  is  in  motion. 
They  are  all,  however,  of  importance  to  the  artist-student,  who  cannot 
acquire  too  accurate  an  impression  of  the  niodits  operandi  of  the  entire  mus- 
cular system. 

In  order  to  understand  the  role  the  muscles  play  in  the  economy  of  man, 
it  is  necessary  first  to  possess  some  knowledge  of  their  shape,  size  and 
attachments,  and  of  their  relative  bearing  to  other  muscles  which  are  sympa- 
thetic or  antagonistic  to  them.  For  this  purpose  the  author  has  introduced 
the  series  of  original  drawings  designed  to  demonstrate  the  attachments  of 
each  separate  muscle,  together  with  drawings  of  the  entire  groups  of  mus- 
cles wlrich  are  associated  in  the  different  regions  of  the  body.  The  parts  of 
the  skeleton  which  belong  to  the  regions  are  in  every  instance  drawn  to  the 
same  scale  and  based  upon  photographs  from  the  bones  of  the  well-formed 
male  skeleton  (Plate  25).  Tlae'^^ecessary  repetition  of  the  salient  features  of 
the  bones,  it  is  believed,  may  serve  as  emphasis  in  aiding  the  memory  for 
future  application. 

The  superficial  muscles  (Plates  78  and  79)  determine  the  outward  form 
of  the  entire  body,  excepting  of  those  parts  of  the  skeleton  which  are  sub- 
cutaneous and  which  are  described  with  the  bones.  They  give  breadth 
and  smootliness  to  the  trunk  and  roundness  to  the  limbs.  In  the  extremi- 
ties  it  should  be  observed  that  in  the  fore-arm  afiuf"  hand,  and  in  the  leg 
and  foot,  the  fleshy  portions  of  the  muscles  occupy  the  parts  nearest  to  the 
trunk,  and  that  they  generally  terminate  in  long  tendons.  This  arrangement 
both  economizes  the  contractile  tissue  of  the  muscles  and  conveys  their 
action  to  greater  distances.  It  also  lightens  the  weight.  In  every  instance 

1 19 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

each  muscle  is  adapted  in  size  and  form  to  perform  its  proper  function  to 
the  greatest  advantage:  and,  as  has  been  said  of  the  bones,  they  are  so 
admirably  constructed  that  they  defy  improvement.  The  special  arrange- 
ment of  the  component  fibres  of  the  different  muscles  is  shown  in  the 
illustrations,  and  it  is  not  necessary  in  this  connection  to  enter  into  a detailed 
description. 

During  life  all  the  muscles  are  in  a state  of  tension,  varying  in  degree 
according  to  the  resistance  imposed  by  the  weight  of  the  part  to  which  they 
are  attached,  the  action  in  which  they  are  engaged,  or  that  in  w'hich  they 
are  opposing  other  muscles.  The  muscles  of  various  groups  aid  each  other 
in  producing  a combined  result,  and  all  the  groups  have  antagonistic  mus- 
cles to  contend  with.  It  is  always  the  thickest  part  of  a muscle  which 
bulges  upon  the  surface  when  it  is  contracted.  The  tendons  do  not  change 
in  bulk  as  do  the  fleshy  portions,  but  are  often  conspicuous  in  cord-like 
elevations  which  produce  surface  furrows  on  either  side  of  them. 

As  muscular  energy  varies  with  the  degree  of  counteraction  by  an 
opposing  force  or  in  consequence  of  an  effort  of  the  will,  it  is  important  to 
examine  into  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the  contours  of  the  body  in 
certain  localities.  (Plates  42,  1(J2  and  114  are  especially  prepared  to  illu.strate 
this.)  The  changes  on  the  surface,  due  to  the  actions  of  the  muscles,  are 
manifested  by  their  contraction  in  length  and  increase  in  bulk.  When  the 
body  is  standing  and  resting  nearly  its  whole  weight  on  one  limb,  the  mus- 
cles of  the  leg  and  thigh  of  that  limb  are  swelled  to  a greater  degree  than 
those  of  the  other  limb,  and  the  swelling  occurs  about  the  middle  of  the  leg 
and  thigh.  This  increase  in  the  girth  of  the  limbs  caused  by  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  in  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body  is  naturally  augmented 
when  extra  weight  is  added  or  an  effort  of  resistance  is  exerted. 

Besides  the  elevations  caused  by  the  various  movements  of  the  limbs, 
there  are  surface  markings  due  to  the  muscles  which  ought  to  be  impressed 
on  the  draughtsman.  The  shape  of  the  neck  from  behind  and  from  the 
front  always  depends  on  the  curve  produced  by  the  trapezius  muscles  as 
they  pass  round  from  the  back  to  their  attachments  on  the  collar  bones 
(see  Plates  26  and  34) ; also  the  swelling  on  the  inner  side  of  the  knee 


120 


Anatomy  in  ih  Relation  to  Art. 


which  is  produced  by  the  attachment  to  the  patella  of  the  vastus  internus 
muscle  (Plate  57),  which  is  always  lower  than  that  of  the  vastus  externus 
muscle  and  gives  rise  to  the  curved  outline  at  this  locality  whether  in  action 
or  at  rest. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  muscles  are  generally  less  developed  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male.  The  muscles  of  the  thighs  in  the  female  are 
wider  in  proportion  to  their  length,  and  in  the  fore-arrns  and  legs  the  fleshy 
portions  of  the  muscles  are  relatively  longer  and  their  tendons  shorter.  In 
the  female,  also,  the  muscles  of  the  hands  and  feet  are  less  pronounced,  so 
that  they  are  both  narrower  than  they  are  in  man. 


PLATE  78. 


Figf.  i.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man 
( right  side ) to  be  compared  with 
Fig.  2. 

Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  superposed 
upon  the  skeleton  as  in  Fig.  I. 

1.  The  temporal  muscle. 

2.  The  occipital  muscle. 

3.  The  cervical  portion  of  the  trapezius 

muscle. 

4.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

5.  The  triceps  muscle. 

6.  The  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

7.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

8.  The  fascia  lata. 


Fig.  2 — continued. 

9.  The  biceps  femoris  muscle. 

10.  The  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

11.  The  tendon  of  Achilles. 

12.  The  frontal  muscle. 

13.  The  masseter  muscle. 

14.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle. 

15.  The  deltoid  muscle. 

16.  The  pectoralis  major  muscle. 

17.  The  biceps  muscle. 

18.  The  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  ab- 

domen. 

19.  The  extensor  muscles  of  the  fore-arm. 

20.  The  vastus  externus  muscle. 

21.  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 


PLATE  78 


t 


/ 


Pig.  1 


Fig.  2 


PLATE  79. 


Ftgf.  I-  The  muscles  diagrammatically  super- 
posed on  the  right  side  of  the  front 
of  the  skeleton. 

1.  The  frontal  muscle. 

2.  The  masseter  muscle. 

3.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle. 

4.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

5.  The  deltoid  muscle. 

6.  The  pectoralis  major  muscle. 

7.  The  serratus  magnus  muscle. 

8.  The  biceps  muscle. 

9.  The  obliquus  externus  abdominis  muscle. 

10.  The  extensor  muscles  of  the  fore-arm. 

11.  The  ligament  of  Poupart. 

12.  The  gluteus  medius  muscle. 

13.  The  sartorius  muscle. 

14.  The  rectus  femoris  muscle. 

15.  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 


i Fig.  2.  The  muscles  diagrammatically  super- 
posed on  the  right  side  of  the  back 
of  the  skeleton. 

1.  The  occipital  muscle. 

2.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle. 

3.  The  trapezius  muscle. 

4.  The  deltoid  muscle. 

5.  The  teres  major  muscle. 

6.  The  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

7.  The  triceps  muscle. 

8.  The  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

9.  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

10.  The  semi-membranosus  muscle. 

11.  The  biceps  femoris  muscle. 

12.  The  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

13.  The  tendon  of  Achilles. 


PLATE  79 


Fig.  2 


PLATE  80. 


Copy  of  an  cngfravingf  adapted  from  a statue  of  Hercules  and  Antaeus. 

It  is  represented  as  if  the  skin  had  been  removed  to  show  the  superficial  muscles  in 
action.  This  plate  originally  appeared  in  “ Cheselden’s  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,” 
published  in  1758. 

The  well-known  fable  that  Antaeus  every  time  he  touched  his  mother  earth  had  his 
strength  renewed,  is  finely  illustrated  in  this  group  which  represents  Hercules  raising  him  on 
high  so  as  to  crush  him  in  his  arms.  The  chief  value  of  this  illustration  is  the  contrast 
between  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  back  and  arms  of  Hercules  and  his  gigantic  legs  set 
widely  apart  compared  to  the  powerlessness  of  the  limbs  of  Antaeus,  which  not  only  show 
that  the  source  of  his  strength  has  been  cut  off  but  that  his  vital  power  is  being  crushed 
out  of  him  by  the  pressure  of  his  adversary. 


t 

» 


t 


PLATE  80 


PLATE  81. 


Photograph  of  a model  dressed  in  a tight-fitting  elastic  suit,  upon  which  the  superficial 
muscles  and  their  tendons  have  been  painted  as  they  would  be  seen  if  the  skin  were  removed. 

This  suit,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  show  the  relative  position  of  the  muscles  in  any 
attitude,  has  been  in  use  for  class  demonstration  since  1885. 


PLATE  81 


V"W 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  ATTITUDES  AND  POSTURES. 

The  attitudes  of  the  human  body  are  those  positions  which  represent 
arrested  motion.  They  are  infinitely  varied,  partaking  of  the  very 
essence  of  movement,  from  the  delicate  poise  of  the  dancing  figure 
to  the  fierce  recoil, of  the  warrior  in  battle  or  of  the  pugilist  before  striking 
a.  decisive  blow. 

The  postures  are  the  different  positions  which  the  body  assumes  when 
it  is  in  repose.  They  are  the  standing  or  upright,  the  sitting,  the  kneeling, 
and  the  recumbent  positions.  In  considering  the  postures  it  is  necessary  to 
remember  that  the  centre  of  gravity  is  the  chief  condition  by  which  the 
body  is  able  to  maintain  its  equilibrium. 

In  the  upright  posture  the  centre  of  gravity,  w'hich  is  found  to  be  about 
the  second  sacral  vertebra,  passes  to  the  plain  of  support  which  is  limited 
by  the  separation  of  the  feet.  The  wider  this  plain  the  more  assured  is  the 
upright  posture.  The  posture  of  a soldier  at  rest  wath  the  heels  in  contact 
is  more  fatiguing  than  the  ordinary  standing  position  with  the  heels  apart. 
In  the  one  the  base  of  support  is  triangular;  in  the  other  it  is  quadrilateral. 

When  a man  supports  a burden  in  the  upright  position  he  is  obliged  to 
incline  in  different  ways  owing  to  the  additional  weight  to  that  of  his  body. 
The  centre  of  gravity  always  passing  between  the  feet.  If  he  carries  a 
burden  on  his  back  he  leans  forward,  or  backward  if  he  supports  the  burden 
in  front.  Thin  people  for  similar  reasons  often  bend  forward,  and  fat  people 
bend  backward.  If  the  additional  weight  be  carried  in  one  hand  he  leans 
toward  the  opposite  side  and  stretches  out  the  other  arm. 

The  exact  adjustment  of  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  is  not 
all-sufficient  to  maintain  the  body  in  the  upright  posture,  and  it  is  necessary 
that  the  muscles  should  contract  so  as  to  immobilize  the  joints  of  the  trunk 
and  the  lower  limbs.  Without  this  power  of  contracting  of  the  muscles,  the 
subtleness  of  the  joints  would  enable  them  to  bend  in  varying  directions  and 
would  cause  the  body  to  fall  in  a helpless  heap. 


123 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  muscles  which  serve  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  body  upon 
its  base  of  support  are  the  extensor  muscles.  The  muscles  of  the  calves  of 
the  legs  prevent  the  flexion  of  the  feet,  and  the  extensor  quadriceps  on  the 
front  of  the  thigh  opposes  the  hamstrings  at  the  knee,  and  the  muscles  of 
the  buttocks,  with  the  assistance  of  the  erector  spinm  mass  of  muscles, 
prevent  the  pelvis  and  the  vertebral  column  from  flexing  forward.  This  is 
all  done  through  the  influence  of  the  will.  One  who  becomes  unconscious 
can  no  longer  support  himself. 

The  continuous  active  contraction  of  so  many  muscles  becomes  fatiguing 
when  unduly  prolonged,  and,  therefore,  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  the 
vertical  posture  for  a length  of  time. 

The  sitting  posture  is  that  position  in  which  the  body  is  supported 
upon  the  two  ischial  tuberosities  of  the  pelvis.  In  this  posture  the  body 

tends  to  fall  backward  because  the  two  ischii  are  in  front  of  the  centre 
of  gravity.  In  consequence  of  this  backed  chairs  were  introduced  to 
afford  comfort  to  the  body  in  sitting.  When  sitting  upon  a stool  or  chair 
without  a back  the  body  is  naturally  inclined  forward  so  that  the  line  of 
gravity  may  pass  through  the  base  of  support  with  the  feet  resting  on  the 
ground. 

The  squatting  position  assumed  by  Orientals  is  more  endurable  than 
sitting,  because  the  base  of  support  is  broadened  by  the  space  between  the 
two  ischii  and  the  outer  borders  of  the  feet. 

Kneeling  is  the  position  assumed  when  the  weight  of  the  body  is 
supported  on  the  patella,  between  which  the  line  of  gravity  passes.  This 
position  soon  becomes  wearisome  owing  to  the  base  of  support  being 
limited,  and  to  the  delicacy  of  the  skin  over  the  knees  which  sustain  the 
weight.  The  fatigue  of  this  position  may  be  diminished  by  leaning  the  body 
forward  against  some  object,  or  backward  upon  the  heels. 

The  sitting  and  kneeling  posture,  as  well  as  the  erect,  require  the  active 
co-operation  of  the  muscular  system  with  the  natural  tendency  exerted  by 
the.  centre  of  gravity  to  maintain  them,  but  in  a less  degree. 


124 


Anatomr  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

The  recumbent  position  differs  from  the  other  postures  essentially, 

because,  in  the  absence  of  the  muscular  action  for  support,  the  body  is 

abandoned  to  its  weight.  This  posture  is  naturally  that  of  rest,  as  it  is  the 
only  one  in  which  there  may  be  absolute  relaxation  of  muscular  effort,  the 
base  of  support  being  co-equal  to  the  length  of  the  body  supported. 

Lying  upon  the  back  is  the  most  favorable  position  for  respiration,  and 

on  this  account  is  assumed  in  infancy  and  old  age.  The  body  may  find 

repose  upon  the  back  or  upon  either  side. 


125 


PLATE  8-2. 


Photograph  of  a woman  model  standing  with  the  weight  chiefly  supported  on  the  right 
foot,  and  the  arms  raised  showing  the  graceful  outline  of  the  waist  and  hips  {from  the  front). 


PLATE  83. 


Photograph  of  a woman  model  standing  in  an  easy  attitude,  showing  the  curves  of  the 
neck,  back  and  loins. 


•rt- 


PLATE  84. 


Photograph  of  a woman  in  a position  suggested  by  the  posture  of  Venus,  in  a group  of 
Venus  and  Cupid/^  by  Thorwaldsen. 


PLATE  85. 


Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  attitude  of  one  who  is  about  to  draw  water  from  a well. 


PLATE  86. 


Photograph  of  a woman  in  the  attitude  of  advancing  and  holding  out  her  hand  in 
greeting. 


PLATE  87. 


Photograph  of  a woman  with  the  arms  raised  as  if  arranging  clothes  on  a line  to  dry, 

N.  B. — These  plates  are  intended  tn  show  the  play  of  the  muscles  of  the  female  figure  in 
ordinary  every  day  action. 


PLATE  89. 


Photograph  of  a cast  from  the  statue,  “L'ecorche,"  in  the  position  of  an  orator,  by  the 
French  sculptor,  Jean-Antoine  Houdon,  1771,  which  is  admirably  suited  for  demonstrating  the 
superficial  muscles  {from  the  front). 


PLATE  90. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  in  Plate  89. 


PLATE  91. 

Photograph  of  Houdon's  statue  {from  the  right  side). 


PLATE  92. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  in  Plate  9L 


PLATE  93. 

Photograph  of  Houdon's  statue  (from  the  left  side). 


PLATE  94. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  in  Plate  93. 


\ 


PLATE  89 


i 


} 


PLATE  94 


Jk-ik 


PLATE  95. 


Fig.  I . Photograph  from  a cast  of  a statue  Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  po- 
of an  athlete,  called  The  Sandal  sition  as  the  statue  in  Fig.  I . 

Binder,''  now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris.  | 


N.  B. — These  photographs  were  taken  on  the  same  negative. 


PLATE  95 


F'ig-  1 Fig.  2 


FOLATE  96. 


Photograph  of  a statue  called  “Mercury  Resting.'^ 


This  is  considered  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  the  antique  bronze  statues  and  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Naples.  It  was  discovered  at  Herculaneum,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
Lycippus  (450  B.  C.).  It  admirably  exhibits  the  effect  of  suspended  muscular  energy  of  a 
young  man  in  repose  after  the  effort  attending  rapid  exercise. 


I’LATE  97. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  shown  in  the  bronze  statue 
in  Plate  96. 


PLATE  96 


PLATE  97 


i 


41 


3 


^ i 


I 


4 


f 

I 


4i 


If 


% 


i 


V 


PLATE  98. 


Photograph  from  a cast  of  the  statue  called  “ Diskobolos,"  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 

It  is  attributed  to  Naucydes  (440  B.  C.).  It  is  a remarkable  example  of  the  careful  study 
given  to  the  harmonious  development  of  the  body  by  the  ancients.  The  attitude  suggests  the 
repose  of  conscious  power,  while  the  face  denotes  the  absorption  of  the  disk  thrower  in  deter- 
mining the  exact  force  and  direction  with  which  he  is  about  to  give  impetus  to  his  missive. 


PLATE  99. 


Photogfraph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  98. 


PLATE  lOO. 


Photog;raph  from  the  cast  of  a statue  of  “ Diskobolos,'^  now  in  the  Palazzo-Messini  at 
Rome. 

It  is  attributed  to  Myron  (450  B.  C.).  It  is  remarkable  for  its  illustration  of  the  effect 
upon  the  surface  form  at  a moment  of  rapid  action.  The  body  is  represented  in  violent 
exertion  and  exhibits  the  graceful  precision  due  to  training.  The  energy  of  both  body  and 
mind  are  concentrated  on  one  movement. 


PLATE  101. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  JOO. 


\ 


PLATE  100 


PLATE  102. 


Photograph  of  a man  carrying  in  his  right  hand  a weight  of  fifty  pounds,  while  he  holds 
with  his  left  hand  a slender  cord  and  pendulum  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb. 

The  study  of  these  contrasted  effects  is  instructive  and  should  be  noted  in  detail.  First, 
the  swejling  of  the  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg  and  the  group  of  extensor  muscles  on 
the  front  of  the  right  thigh  resulting  from  the  weight  being  chiefly  sustained  on  that  limb,  is  to 
be  contrasted  with  the  relaxed  state  of  the  left  limb,  where  the  fascia  lata  over  the  extensor 
muscles  of  the  thigh  presents  a graceful  curve,  and  the  tendon  of  Achilles  is  alone  contracted 
in  raising  the  heel  so  that  the  toes  of  the  left  foot  rest  upon  the  ground. 

This  position  of  the  left  limb  relieves,  however,  part  of  the  tension  of  the  right  limb, 
which  chiefly  sustains  the  weight. 

The  changes  exerted  at  the  shoulders  by  the  different  degrees  of  actions  of  the  deltoid 
muscles  are  also  marked.  The  effect  on  the  right  upper  limb  is  to  accentuate  the  swelling  of 
the  deltoid  and  that  of  the  biceps  muscles,  while  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  are 
hardened  into  a strong  mass  to  resist  the  weight  sustained  by  the  hand,  and  the  extensor 
muscles  are  tensely  drawn  with  the  effort  to  counteract  them.  On  the  left  shoulder  the 
deltoid  muscle  draws  the  pectoral  muscle  into  strong  relief  in  raising  the  arm  to  a right  angle, 
while  the  biceps  muscle  is  contracted  in  the  same  action  and  the  triceps  muscle  hangs  loosely 
from  the  arm-pit  to  the  elbow. 


PLATE  103. 


Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  the  skeleton  of  a man 
in  approximately  the  same  position 
as  the  man  in  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a man  whose  weight  is 
supported  on  the  left  limb  with  the 
right  hand  extended,  as  in  a gesture  of 


Fig.  2. — continued. 

explanation,  and  the  left  fore-arm  and 
hand  bent  back  on  the  chest,  as  if 
holding  the  folds  of  a cloak  or  toga. 

Fig.  3.  Photograph  of  a man  in  the  same 
position  as  in  Fig.  2 (with  drapery). 


The  ease  and  lightness  of  the  whole  attitude  are  to  be  contrasted  with  the  enforced  pre- 
cision of  the  left  upper  limb  (Plate  102)  and  the  constrained  effort  of  the  right  upper  limb 
which  sustains  the  weight  in  that  plate.  The  centre  of  gravity  falls  in  the  same  perpendicular 
line  as  in  the  former  plate,  from  the  neck  to  the  left  heel,  but  the  right  knee  is  advanced  and 
thereby  throws  the  left  thigh  into  less  marked  relief  than  the  right  thigh  in  Plate  102.  The 
right  foot  resting  slightly  on  the  toes  gives  the  effect  of  momentary  poise  or  attitude  ready 
to  be  changed  for  another  at  will,  and  conveys  no  impression  of  any  exertion  in  the  figure  to 
support  itself. 


. ??  ‘fif  j 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  PROGRESSION 

WALKING,  or  the  ordinary  means  of  progression,  consists  of  suc- 
cessive actions  called  steps.  An  analysis  of  the  changes  of 
position  which  affect  the  trunk  and  the  lower  limbs  at  every 
step,  shows  that  there  are  two  principal  movements  in  which  each  step  is 
executed.  In  the  first  movement  the  body  rests  upon  the  two  lovv'er 
limbs,  and  in  the  second  it  only  rests  upon  one  or  the  other.  Upon  each 
new  step  the  leg  which  supports  the  body  in  the  second  movement  is 
carried  forward  by  an  oscillatory  action  which  may  be  compared  to  the 
swing  of  a pendulum.  During  the  walk  the  body  is  carried  alternately  to 
the  right  and  to  the  left,  first  upon  one  leg  and  then  the  other,  so  that  the 
individual  progresses  by  a series  of  movements  of  oblique  projection  which 
succeed  each  other  more  or  less  rapidly.  There  results  a peculiar  swing- 
ing which  is  accentuated  according  to  the  separation  of  the  feet  and  the 
width  of  the  hips.  This  is  characteristic  of  the  walk  of  sailors,  called  their 
“sea  legs.” 

With  unconscious  effort  to  balance  the  movements  of  the  limbs  in 
walking,  the  arms  naturally  swing  in  opposite  directions  to  the  correspond- 
ing legs,  performing  oscillations  inversely  to  them.  When  one  leg  is  moved 
from  behind  forward  the  arm  of  the  corresponding  side  moves  from  before 
backward.  Fatigue  in  walking  comes  on  more  quickly  when  the  hands  are 
kept  in  the  pockets  or  the  arms  are  folded.  The  impulsion  in  walking  is 
strongest  on  the  right  side,  as  can  be  demonstrated  by  placing  a blindfolded 
man  upon  the  middle  of  a square,  when  it  will  be  noticed  that  he  invariably 
moves  toward  the  left.  Directness  in  walking,  therefore,  depends  upon  the 
integrity  of  the  sight. 

IValking  lip  hill  or  np  stairs  (Plate  104)  is  more  difficult  than  walking 
upon  level  ground,  because  at  each  step  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  have 
to  lift  up  the  body  to  follow  an  ascending  line  parallel  to  the  inclination  of 
the  ascent.  In  this  upward  effort  of  the  lower  limbs  the  extensor  muscles 


127 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 

of  the  thighs  are  brought  into  very  active  use  and  the  chief  strain  is  borne 
upon  the  knees. 

In  zL'alking  down  hill  or  down  stairs  (Plate  105)  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  tends  to  prevent  the  trunk  from  falling  forward,  and  this  strain  is 
chiefly  felt  at  the  loins. 

The  action  in  jumping  or  leaping  differs  from  that  in  walking,  inasmuch 
that  at  a given  moment  the  body  is  entirely  off  the  ground,  and  is  projected 
more  or  less  suddenly  backward  or  forward  by  the  absolute  extension  of 
the  lower  limbs  and  by  the  flexion  of  the  spine  to  one  side  or  the  other. 

The  extent  of  the  leap  is  greatest  when  the  lower  limbs  are  very  long. 
This  is  seen  in  the  case  of  all  the  lower  animals,  from  the  frog  to  the  hare 
or  kangaroo,  etc.,  wherever  the  hind  legs  are  more  developed  than  the  fore 
legs. 

In  jumping  the  impetus  is  increased  by  swinging  the  arms,  and  it  may 
be  further  increased  by  preceding  the  jump  by  running. 

Running  (Plate  73)  consists  of  a progression  which  is  composed  of  a 
succession  of  rapid  jumps,  and  the  muscular  contractions  are  more  numerous 
and  stronger  than  in  w'alking.  The  muscles  employed  are  the  same. 

Swimming  is  a series  of  horizontal  leaps  taken  in  the  water.  The  impulse 
which  pushes  the  body  forward  results  from  methodical  movements  of  the 
upper  and  lower  limbs. 

While  the  definition  just  given  of  muscular  actions  involved  in  movement 
is  original,  the  synopsis  of  conditions  in  the  relation  of  the  different  postures 
to  the  centre  of  gravity  is  adapted  from  G.  Witkowski,  whose  work  on  the 
“Structure  and  Functions  of  the  Human  Body”  first  interested  the  author  in 
popularizing  the  study  of  anatomy. 


128 


PLATE  104. 


Photograph  of  a man  walking  op  stairs  taken  at  the  moment  that  he  is  leaning  forward  so 
as  to  place  his  weight  upon  the  upper  step. 

The  curve  at  the  back  should  be  especially  noticed  as  indicative  of  the  ascending  impulse 
of  the  whole  body. 


PLATE  105. 


Photograph  of  a man  walking  op  stairs  with  the  knee  more  bent  than  in  Plate  f04,  and 
the  limb  which  is  extended  in  the  act  of  leaving  the  ground,  turned  toward  the  camera. 

The  movement  in  this  instance  is  more  deliberate  than  in  Plate  104,  and  the  upper  portion 
of  the  body  is  entirely  passive. 


PLATE  106. 

Photograph  of  a man  walking  op  stairs  in  exact  profile. 

The  step  here  is  higher  than  in  the  two  previous  plates  and  the  effort  to  mount  more 
apparent,  while  the  weight  is  more  evenly  distributed  between  the  upper  and  lower  steps. 


PLATE  107. 

Photograph  of  a man  stepping  downward. 

The  chief  contrast  between  this  and  the  plates  showing  the  man  stepping  upward,  is  the 
relaxation  of  effort,  illustrated,  not  only  in  the  comparative  repose  of  the  lower  limbs,  but 
curiously  shown  in  the  manner  in  which  the  arms  and  hands  hang  at  ease  by  his  sides. 


PLATE  108. 


Instantaneous  photograph  of  a woman  running  rapidly  toward  the  camera  with  the 
arms  outstretched. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  whole  weight  is  sustained  on  the  right  foot,  and  the  body  so  far 
thrown  forward  that  only  the  toes  are  resting  on  the  ground.  The  rapidity  of  the  motion  may 
be  measured  by  the  distance  to  be  traversed  by  the  left  foot  before  reaching  the  ground. 


PLATE  109. 


Photograph  of  the  famous  bronze  statue  of 
(A.  D.  t524)  at  Florence  right  side). 


‘'The  Flying  Mercury''  by  John  of  Bologna 


PLATE  no. 

Photograph  of  a model  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  of  “ The  Flying 
Mercury"  in  Plate  t09. 

The  man  thus  represented  was  poised  upon  the  ball  of  the  left  foot,  the  whole  weight  of 
the  body  thrown  forward,  and  the  right  arm  raised  as  though  pointing  upward.  The  play  of 
muscles  thus  displayed  upon  the  shoulders  and  back  is  unusually  fine.  Attention  should  be 
especially  drawn  to  the  fold  of  integument  of  the  neck  caused  by  the  turn  of  the  head  over 
the  right  shoulder,  and  to  the  modelling  of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  and  hips  of  the  right  limb, 
which  is  extended  backward. 


PLATE  111. 


Photograph  of  the  bronze  statue  of 


“ The  Flying  Mercury  " by  John  of  Bologna  {left  side). 


PLATE  112. 

Photograph  of  a model  in  the  same  attitude  as  the  statue  in  Plate  \ 1 1 {left  side). 

The  most  instructive  feature  of  this  photograph  is  the  effect  of  the  action  of  the  diaphragm 
on  the  outline  of  the  chest  and  abdomen.  This  action  is  manifested  by  the  contraction  at  the 
enciform  cartilage,  where  the  recti  muscles  are  attached,  and  the  indrawing  of  the  upper 
lateral  abdominal  walls.  This  is  accompanied  by  the  expansion  of  the  chest  that  follows  on 
the  upward  movement  of  the  arches  of  the  diaphragm  (page  58)  as  a consequence  of  violent 
effort. 


f 


-‘•f-.y:  I t 1^, ' 


I*  ^ >7  ■'W'W 


r 


PLATE  109 


PLATE  112 


PLATE  113. 


Photograph  from  a cast  of  the  famous  statue  “The  Fighting  Gladiator/'  by  the  Greek 
Sculptor  Agasius,  brought  from  the  Villa  Borghese,  Rome,  by  Napoleon,  to  Paris,  and  now 
in  the  Louvre  (from  the.  fro7it). 


PLATE  114. 

Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  113. 

N.  B. — While  this  model  is  not  so  muscularly  developed  as  that  from  which  the  statue 
was  made,  yet  the  outline  and  surface  markings  are  suggestive  of  the  energy  of  the  body 
in  this  posture. 


PLATE  115. 

Photograph  from  a cast  of  the  statue  of  “The  Fighting  Gladiator"  {from  the  back). 


PLATE  116. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  approximately  the  same  position  as  the  statue  in  Plate  115. 


PLATE  113 


/ 


PLATE  115 


1 


i 


PLATE  116 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  HUMAN  FIGURE. 


LL  measurements  and  so-called  rules  of  proportion  of  the  human  figure 


can  only  be  capable  of  limited  application.  They  are  often  so  complica- 


ted that  they  lead  to  erroneous  conclusions.  The  height,  breadth,  and 
general  conformation,  are  due,  it  is  true,  to  the  development  of  the  skeleton,  but 
the  bulk  of  the  form  and  the  contour  of  the  limbs,  so  important  in  producing  the 
effect  of  beauty,  depend  upon  the  general  healthy  nutrition  of  the  body,  leading 
to  a normal  formation  of  fat  in  the  tissues,  which  masks  the  undue  prominence 
of  the  muscles,  without  detracting  from  the  effect  of  muscular  energy. 

What  artists  need  is  judgment  of  the  harmonious  proportions  of  the  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  body  in  relation  to  one  another,  whether  their  conception  be  of 
the  real  or  of  the  ideal  form.  This  judgment  can  best  be  acquired  from  anatom- 
ical knowledge,  which  will  explain  the  purposes  of  construction  of  the  body. 

The  framework  of  each  normal  individual  is  constructed  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  fitness  of  means  toward  an  end,  or  of  that  individual  as  an  entity. 
A long  arm  is  useful  in  boxing  or  in  wielding  a hammer,  but  it  would  not 
suggest  ready  adaptation  to  lighter  work.  A long  narrow  head  and  slender 
hands  and  feet  are  not  furnished  by  nature  to  a short,  broad  trunk. 

A perfectly  formed  man  or  woman  is  almost  as  rare  as  the  honest  indi- 
vidual who  has  long  been  counted  among  the  noblest  works  of  the  Creator! 
In  other  words,  the  proper  development  of  the  entire  body,  or  what  is  un- 
derstood to  be  the  harmonious  relation  in  size  and  shape  of  its  component 
parts,  is  exceptional.  Often  when  the  upper  portion  approaches  the  standard, 
the  lower  portion  is  defective,  or  vice  versa. 

The  proper  relative  length  of  the  several  parts  of  the  body  can  be 
determined  by  measurement.  To  this  end  it  is  well  that  artists  should  have 
some  definite  scheme  by  which  to  draw  the  size  of  the  figure  correctly,  but 
such  a scheme  can  only  enable  them  to  construct  the  mechanical  proportions 
of  the  body.  Grace,  symmetry,  and  harmony,  upon  which  the  beauty  of  the 
outward  form  depend,  cannot  be  defined  by  any  rule  or  formula.  Observa- 


129 


Anatomy  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


tion,  combined  with  a knowledge  of  the  anatomy  beneath  the  surface,  will 
result  in  producing  the  proper  shape  of  the  parts  as  well  as  the  whole. 

Examination  of  most  of  the  antique  statues  will  prove  that  the  effect  of 
harmony  in  their  proportions  is  not  due  so  much  to  the  relative  measure- 
ments of  the  head,  limbs  and  trunk,  as  to  the  careful  exhibition  of  the  sur- 
face forms  resulting  in  each  case  from  the  most  intelligent  study  of  life  in 
repose  or  in  action. 

It  is  this  observance  of  nature  which  gives  to  the  ancient  sculptors  the 
just  title  of  “ Masters  in  Art.” 

Thorwaldsen,  of  all  modern  sculptors,  excelled  in  his  work  through  his 
comprehension  of  the  facts  relating  to  the  outward  form,  and  all  his  statues 
bear  evidence  to  his  power  of  distinguishing  and  fixing  the  varied  types  of 
human  strength  or  beauty,  and  to  his  close  attention  to  proportion,  based 
upon  a knowledge  of  anatomy.  Whereas  it  is  certainly  possible  for  some 
who  have  natural  powers  of  observation,  exercised  almost  unconsciously,  to 
convey  their  impressions  with  the  brush  or  chisel,  so  as  to  produce  an 
agreeable  result,  without  examining  into  the  causes  of  the  effect  which  they 
have  received  and  transmitted,  yet  this  gift  is  rare.  To  the  many  who  do 
not  possess  it,  rules  of  proportion,  however  imperfect,  are  necessary. 

The  scheme  for  arriving  at  the  correct  dimensions  of  the  human  figure, 
which  the  author  recommends,  is  based  upon  the  supposition  that  the  most 
perfect  form  of  man  should  measure  as  to  length,  eight  times  the  length  of 
the  head:  and  of  woman,  seven  and  one-half.  (Plates  118  and  119.) 

Using  the  head-length  (/.  e.,  the  skull-length)  as  a unit  for  measurement, 
as  demonstrated  in  Plate  117,  the  following  simple  table  of  reference  can  be 
deduced,  which  does  not  require  taxing  either  the  memory  or  the  imagination : 


The  width  between  the  shoulders  should  equal  the  length 


In  Man 
in  the  erect 
position. 


of  two  heads. 

The  width  between  the  hips  should  equal  the  length  of 


The  width  between  the  nipples  should  equal  the  length 
of  one  head. 


Anatomy  in  its  Ketation  to  Art. 


The  Upper 
Extremity 
should  measure 
three  heads. 


The  distance  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  point 
of  the  elbow  should  equal  the  length  of  one  and  one-quarter 
heads. 

The  distance  from  the  point  of  the  elbow  to  the  knuckle 
of  the  middle  finger  should  also  equal  the  length  of  one  and 
one-quarter  heads. 

The  length  of  the  middle  finger  should  be  a half  a head 
length. 


The  Lower 
Extremity 
should  measure 
four  heads. 


/ The  distance  from  the  great  trochanter  of  the  hip  to  the 
' bottom  of  the  patella  should  equal  the  length  of  two  heads. 
I The  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  patella  to  the  sole 
\ of  the  foot  should  also  equal  the  length  of  two  heads. 


The  trunk  should  measure  two  and  one-half  heads  in  length. 

/ The  width  between  the  shoulders  should  equal  the  width 
\ between  the  hips,  and  this  should  be  equal  to  the  length  of 
( one  and  three-quarter  heads. 

/ The  width  between  the  nipples  must  vary,  according  to 
\ age  and  the  development  of  the  breasts. 

In  woman  both  the  upper  and  lower  extremities  are  comparatively  shorter 
than  they  are  in  man ; but  their  respective  measurements  from  point  to  point, 
as  given  for  the  man,  are  the  same;  /.  e.,  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to 
the  point  of  the  elbow  should  equal  the  distance  from  the  point  of  the  elbow 
to  the  knuckle  of  the  middle  finger,  and  from  the  great  trochanter  to  the 
bottom  of  the  patella  should  equal  the  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  patella 
to  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

The  trunk  is  approximately  the  same  in  both  man  and  woman,  there 
being  little  difference  when  sitting.  The  difference  in  height  is  chiefly 
owing  to  the  greater  length  of  the  lower  extremities  in  man. 

The  measurements  here  given  are  the  result  of  very  careful  examination 
of  many  skeletons  and  of  numerous  living  models. 

131 


In  Woman 
in  the  erect 
position. 


Auatomv  in  its  Relation  to  Art. 


They  are  based  upon  the  Greek  scale  of  Vitruvius,  which  was  adopted 
long  ago  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  as  shown  by  a famous  diagram  that  he 
made,  but  the  author  has  taken  pains  to  verify  them  by  his  owat  observa- 
tion. Since  the  time  of  da  Vinci  many  writers  on  the  subject  of  proportions 
fiave  striven  to  demonstrate  that  his  measurements  were  not  correct,  and 
have  based  their ’assertions  upon  scientific  facts.  They  have  deduced  from 
an  average  of  specimens  of  the  different  human  races  what  is  called  the 
anthropometric  scale.  This,  like  all  scientific  averages,  is  the  mean  adopted 
after  comparative  examinations  of  all  sorts  of  specimens  of  the  different 
races,  and  it  is  not  to  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  requirements  of  art. 
Anatomy  is  not  artistic,  it  is  rather  scientific ; but  as  it  is  the  only  means  of 
arriving  at  a knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the  human  body,  it  is  the 
best  method  of  reaching  the  fundamental  principles  of  proportion,  which 
should  be  understood  to  be  the  harmonious  development  in  size  and  shape 
of  the  component  parts  of  any  body  in  relation  to  one  another.  Artists 
should  never  lose  sight  of  these  facts,  or  forget  to  distinguish  them  through 
the  modifying  influences  of  habits  and  age. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  the  goal  is 
perfection,  and  few  human  beings  ever  reach  the  standard.  The  man  whose 
figure  has  been  so  frequently  represented  in  the  illustrations  of  this  book  is  a 
remarkable  instance  of  harmonious  development,  although  his  hands  and  feet 
are  not  finely  shaped.  The  different  poses  and  attitudes  assumed  by  him  in 
Plates  9U,  92,  94,  97,  99,  103,  110  and  112  show  the  rare  degree  of  beauty  of 
his  figure.  Examination  of  the  photographs  of  this  model  side  by  side  with 
casts  of  many  of  the  antique  statues,  will  afford  valuable  suggestions  to  the 
sculptor,  and  it  may  be  noticed  how  well  the  model  bears  the  comparison. 

The  photographs  of  the  female  figure  used  in  illustration  of  a number 
of  womanly  positions,  chosen  with  a view  to  the  display  of  muscular  action 
or  repose  in  the  ordinary  vocations  of  life,  are  much  simpler'  than  those  of 
the  male  figure,  because  it  is  not  common  for  artists  to  desire  to  depict  a 
woman's  form  in  athletic  excercises  or  under  the  stress  of  hard  labor. 

The  model  who  posed  for  these  studies  was  chiefly  remarkable  for 
beauty  of  outline  at  rest  or  in  motion,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  the 

132 


Anatomy  in  its  Retation  to  Art. 


generally  fine  proportion  of  her  fgure  is  impaired  by  a lack  of  maturity  in 
the  development  of  the  breasts.  Her  grace  of  form  is  perhaps  more  notice- 
able in  repose,  as  in  Plates  75,  76,  77,  82,  83,  84  and  85  than  in  some  of  the 
dancing  figures  (Plate  88)  wliich  complete  the  series. 

Such  defects  as  may  be  found  in  different  models  will  only  go  to  prove 
the  rule,  if  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  goal  is  perfection.  The  effect 
produceable  by  changing  the  measurements  in  drawings  was  often  essayed 
by  the  ancient  artists,  whose  opportunities  for  studying  the  naked  body  gave 
them  the  advantage  of  becoming  familiar  with  its  contour  and  proportions. 
The  head  was  sometimes  shortened  to  produce  the  effect  of  youth,  or  the 
limbs  lengthened  to  suggest  grace  and  freedom  of  action.  Strength  and 
power  w'ere  natumlly  indicated  by  increase  of  muscular  development. 

The  author  has  always  considered  it  injurious  to  allow  students  to  dwell 
too  much,  however,  on  the  subject  of  excess  of  muscular  development,  for 
it  is  apt  to  give  an  exaggerated  impression,  which  is  very  far  from  a truth- 
ful one. 

Few  men  ever  exhibit  tlieir  muscles  on  the  surface  in  the  ordinary 
actions  of  the  body:  women  never  do.  The  over-developed  man  who  is 
considered  as  a Hercules  is  only  fit  for  study  in  contrast  with  a model 
whose  muscles  are  not  prominent  in  repose  and  only  show  the  swelling  on 
the  surface  when  brought  violently  into  play.  It  is  well  to  recognize  that 
the  muscles  are  there,  and  to  know  what  they  are  capable  of  doing,  but 
it  is  not  well  to  indicate  them  in  such  a way  as  to  give  them  unnatural 
emphasis.  Truth  is  what  should  be  aimed  at,  and  what  is  excessive  in 
development  should  not  be  substituted  in  the  effort  to  convey  reality  of 
impression. 

It  is  wise  in  painting  and  sculpture,  as  in  all  the  other  arts,  to  avoid 
extreme  effects. 


133 


PLATE  117. 


Photograph  of  a man  in  the  erect  position  with  arms  equally  extended  on  either  side.  The 
squares  and  circle  were  drawn  on  the  photograph  to  show  the  admirable  proportion  of  this 
man's  figure.  The  measurement  from  the  top  of  his  head  to  the  soles  of  his  feet  is  the  same  as 
the  measurement  from  the  finger  tips  of  one  hand  to  those  of  the  other,  i.  e.  exactly  eight  times 
the  length  of  his  head,  and  as  his  head  measures  eight  and  one-half  inches,  his  height  is  exactly 
sixty-eight  inches  or  five  feet  eight  inches. 

This  man's  figure  also  demonstrates  the  scheme  for  proportion  on  page  t30.  Compare 
Plates  90,  92,  94,  99  and  II 0. 

N.  B. — The  circle  is  merely  drawn  on  this  Plate  to  show  that  the  square  is  a perfect  one. 


PLATE  118. 

Photographs  of  a man,  from  the  front  and  left  side,  with  transverse  parallel  lines  superposed 
to  demonstrate  the  division  of  the  stature  into  eight  head  lengths  (see  page  130).  Compare 
Plates  I and  5. 


PLATE  lia 


Photographs  of  a woman,  from  the  front  and  left  side,  with  transverse  parallel  lines  super- 
posed to  demonstrate  the  division  of  the  stature  into  seven  and  one-half  head  lengths  (see  page 
130).  Compare  Plates  3 and  5. 


PLATE  120. 


Fig.  I.  Photograph  of  a ma.n  (from  the  back) 
with  transverse  parallel  lines  super- 
posed to  demonstrate  the  division  of 
the  stature  into  eight  head  lengths 
(see  page  130  . Compare  Plates  I 
and  5. 


Fig.  2.  Photograph  of  a woman  (from  the 
bach)  with  transverse  parallel  lines 
superposed  to  demonstrate  the  div- 
ision of  the  stature  into  seven  and 
one-half  head  lengths  'see  page  130). 
Compare  Plates  3 and  5. 


PLATE  121. 


Photograph  of  a girl  baby,  seven  months  old,  showing  the  furrows  on  the  front  of  the 
thighs  before  the  lower  limbs  are  able  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body. 

This  plate  is  especially  interesting  in  this  connection  because  it  represents  a perfectly 
developed  child,  which  is  almost  as  rare  as  is  the  adult  (page  129).  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  length  of  the  figure  is  about  four  and  a half  times  the  length  of  the  child’s  head,  which 
corresponds  to  the  accepted  rule  of  proportion  at  this  age. 

N.  B. — The  negative  from  which  this  plate  was  taken  was  originally  made,  with  a series 
of  others,  by  the  author  for  the  illustrations  of  his  work  on  the  Anatomy  of  Children,  1889. 


PLATE  121 


i , 


t. 


PLATES  122,  123,  124  and  125. 


Plates  122  and  i24  are  from  photographs  taken  at  Paris,  by  the  author,  in  1893,  by 
special  permission  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Louvre. 

They  are  from  a cartoon  by  David  (1789).  It  represents  a moment  of  supreme  patriotism, 
when  all  the  members  of  the  French  Assembly,  of  divers  opinions  and  different  professions, 
coming  from  various  parts  of  the  country,  met  in  the  tennis  court  at  Versailles  and  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  first  Republican  Government,  in  which  they  believed  they  were 
pledging  themselves  to  uphold  freedom.  This  sketch  is  called,  “ Le  Serment  du  Jeu  de  Paume.” 
Louis  David,  one  of  the  best  known  and  remarkable  painters  of  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  was  a politician  as  well  as  an  artist  and  knew  personally  most  of  the  principal 
actors  in  this  drama,  so  that  he  collected  in  the  foreground  of  his  picture,  groups  of  portraits  of 
many  of  the  most  conspicuous  men,  who  joined  in  taking  the  oath  in  striking  contrast  to  one 
another. 


Plates  i23  and  125  are  also  from  photographs  of  the  completed  picture  of  which  plates  122 
and  124  represent  the  cartoon. 

Plate  123  shows  Mirabeau,  Dubois  Cranee  and  Robespierre;  Plate  123  shows  Gert 
(a  Carthusian  monk),  Rohan  St  Etienne  (a  Protestant  minister),  and  the  Abbe  Gregoire 
(a  Catholic  priest). 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  figures  in  the  cartoon  are  approximately  of  the  same  height,  and 
critics,  who  might  have  been  better  employed,  in  studying  the  fitness  and  perfection  and  pro- 
portion of  each  individual  figure,  have  carped  at  this  seeming  want  of  attention  to  the  laws  of 
perspective.  What  chiefly  concerns  this  work  is  the  naturalness  and  the  absolute  unconscious 
abandonment  of  each  attitude  or  posture  to  the  spirit  of  the  moment,  resulting  from  very 
careful  attention  to  the  anatomical  relations  which  are  worked  out  to  such  a degree  of  perfec- 
tion in  the  preliminary  study,  that  even  had  they  been  covered  by  clothing  as  in  the  finished 
picture,  they  might  still  be  recognized  and  distinguished. 

It  is  evident  that  David  began  the  cartoon  with  enthusiasm,  as  shown  by  the  cleverness 
and  admirable  technical  work  on  the  heads  and  hands  of  most  of  the  figures. 

The  cartoon  itself  is  all  that  David’s  own  hands  accomplished.  The  finished  picture  was 
the  work  of  Moreau,  one  of  his  pupils,  and  is  now  at  the  museum  at  Versailles.  While  it  is 
unquestionably  based  upon  the  original  sketch  by  David,  the  latter  in  its  unfinished  state  may 
justly  be  considered  superior. 

It  was  long  the  custom  among  the  old  Italian  school  of  artists  in  their  composition  studies 
for  statuary  or  painting,  to  make  a preliminary  sketch  of  the  figures  they  wished  to  represent, 
in  the  nude,  indicating,  with  more  or  less  precision,  the  prominences  of  the  skeleton  or  the 
action  of  various  muscles  which  were  indicative  of  the  character  of  the  form  whjch  they 
intended  to  represent.  No  modern  artist  seems  to  have  appreciated  the  value  of  this  method 
more  than  David,  who,  in  his  compositions,  first  drew  the  naked  figure  in  order  to  give  the 
natural  movements  under  the  garments  with  which  he  covered  them  later,  so  that  the  drapery 
was  thus  subordinated  to  and  harmonized  with  the  action  or  posture. 

In  illustration  of  this  principal  these  photographs  are  here  included.  As  studies  of  the 
application  of  Anatomy  to  Art,  they  are  certainly  worthy  of  close  attention  and  of  careful 
comparison. 


PLATE  122 


PLATE  123 


PLATE  124 


PLATE  125 


INDEX 


PACK 

Abdomen,  landmarks  of 57 

skin  over  the 6o 

surface  form  of Co 

the 57 

Achilles,  tendon  of 107 

Adam’s  apple 44 

Anger 33 

Angle,  facial 29 

Ankle  joint 24,  94 

ligaments  of 1 10 

Aponeurosis 31 

Arch,  pubic  90 

Arches,  femoral 58 

Arches  of  the  foot 96 

Arm-bone 71 

Arm,  muscles  of 76 

Arm-pit,  the 76 

Arm,  surface  markings  of  ......  . 78 

Articulation  of  the  ribs 52 

Articulations,  the 21 

Attitudes,  the 123 

Auricle,  the 41 

A.xilla,  the 7C 

Back,  curves  of 1 1 5 

median  furrow  of 67 

muscles  of 63 

skin  of 67 

surface  markings  of 67 

the 63 

Band,  ilio-tibial 105 

Beauty  of  form 129 

Bone  or  bones — 

arm,  influence  on  surface  ....  78 

astragalus 94 


PACK 

Bone  or  bones — 

carpal 73 

cheek 27 

classification  of 20 

clavicles 70 

coccyx 90 

ethmoid 26 

femur 91 

femur,  influence  on  surface  ...  117 

flat 20 

fibula 93 

frontal  25 

frontal  in  babyhood 25 

gladiolus 51 

haunch 89 

hip 89 

hyoid 44,  45 

innominate 89 

irregular 20 

ischium 89 

long  20 

lower  jaw 28 

manubrium 51 

marrow 20 

meta-carpal 95 

meta-tarsal  95 

nasal  27 

occipital 26 

of  the  arm 70 

of  the  face 25 

of  the  fingers  73 

of  the  foot,  influence  on  surface  . 118 

of  the  fore-arm 72 

of  the  fore-arm,  influence  on  surface  1 16 
of  the  hand,  influence  on  surface  . 117 


135 


Index. 


Bone  or  bones — 

of  the  head 

of  the  leg,  influence  on  surface  . . 

of  the  pelvis 

of  the  toes 

os  calcis 

parietal 

patella 

pubis 

radius  

sacrum 

scapulae 

sesamoid 

sphenoid 

sternum 

tarsal  

temporal 

vomer 

thigh,  influence  on  surface  .... 

tibia  

ulna  

upper-jaw 

Breast-bone 

Breasts,  the 

Buttocks,  skin  over  the 

Buttocks,  the 

Carpus,  the 

Cartilage,  cricoid 

inter-vertebral 44 

nasal  

thyroid 

Centre  of  gravity,  in  the  kneeling  posture 
in  the  sitting  posture 
in  the  upright  posture 

Climbing 

Collar  bones 

Cranium,  the 

Cunning 

Derision 

Devotion 

Diaphragm,  the 

Disdain 

Disgust 


PAGE 

Double  chin 47 

Doubt 32 

Bar,  anti  helix  of 41 

helix  of 41 

lobule  of 41 

muscles  of 41 

of  fauns 42 

of  satyrs 42 

tragus  of 41 

Elbow,  prominence  of 116 

joint 22 

skin  over  the 78 

superficial  veins  at 78 

the 71 

Enciform  process,  the 51 

Epi-cranium,  the 31 

Expression,  in  frowning 33 

in  laughter 38,  41 

in  singing 41 

in  yawning 46 

muscles  of  the  intellectual  . 37 

of  anger 33 

of  cunning 40 

of  derision 38 

of  devotion 40 

of  disdain 33,  36 

of  disgust 36 

of  doubt 32 

of  hope 40 

of  horror 47 

of  indignation 36 

of  irony 38 

of  melancholy 38 

of  pouting 37 

of  pride 33 

of  sarcasm 38 

of  scorn 38 

of  shame 40 

of  shyness 40 

of  surprise 32,  47 

Extremity,  the  lower 91 

the  upper 69 

Eye,  conjunctiva  of 35 

high  light  of 35 

36 


PAGE 

25 

93 

89 

94 

95 

25 

92 

89 

72 

90 

70 

1 10 

26 

51 

94 

26 

27 

117 

73 

72 

27 

51 

55 

100 

98 

73 

44 

. 49 

27 

44 

124 

124 

123 

59 

70 

25 

40 

38 

40 

57 

33 

36 

1 


Index. 


PACK 

h'ye,  orbits 34 

pupil  of 35 

retina  of 35 

the,  in  agony 40 

in  beauty  40 

in  depression 40 

in  laughing 41 

in  languor 40 

in  pity 40 

in  power 40 

in  reverence 40 

in  singing 40 

in  sleep 40 

Eye-ball,  cornea  of 35 

iris  of 35 

sclerotic  coat  of 35 

white  coat  of 35 

Eye-balls,  in  fainting 40 

in  intoxication 41 

in  sleep 4* 

muscles  of 40 

the 35 

Eye-brows,  the 34,  40 

Eye-lashes 34,  40 

Eye-lids,  in  coughing 41 

in  sneezing 41 

orbicular  muscle  of 33 

the 34,  40 

Face,  bones  of 25 

muscles  of 31 

skeleton  of 26 

skin  of 39 

Facial  angle 29 

dimples 39 

furrows  39 

markings 39 

Fascia,  deep 17 

lata,  the 100,  105 

lumbar 66 

plantar no 

sub-cutaneous 17 

temporal 42 

Fat,  in  the  tissues 129 

Fingers,  joints  of 22 


PACE 

Fissure,  of  eye-lids 34 

Fold,  gluteal 98 

Foot,  antero-posterior  arch  of no 

arches  of 96 

imprint  of 96 

influence  on  surface  of  bones  of  . . 118 

skeleton  of 94 

skin  over  the in 

sole  of in 

Fore-arm,  muscles  of 79 

the 72 

Forehead,  the  25 

Form,  beauty  of 129 

Frontal  bone 25 

eminence 25 

muscles 31 

ridge 25 

sinus 25 

Girdle,  pelvic 89,  113 

shoulder 70,  n 3 

Glands,  mammary 55 

thyroid 45 

Grace  . 130 

Hairs  of  the  scalp 32 

Ham,  the 105 

Hand,  bones  of 117 

heel  of 87 

hollow  of 87 

interosseous  muscles  of 84 

lines  of 87 

palm  of 87 

skeleton  of 73 

skin  over  the  back  of 87 

surface  markings  of 87 

Harmony 130 

Head,  bones  of 25 

muscles  of 31 

Hip-joint 23,  97 

muscles  of 98 

Hope 40 

Horror 47 

Humerus,  the 71 


137 


Index. 


PAGE 

Indignation 36 

Irony 38 

Joint,  ankle 24,  94 

capsule  of 21 

elbow 22,  71 

liip  • V 23,  97 

immovable 21 

knee 23,  92 

knuckle  85 

of  the  fingers 22 

of  the  thumb  22 

mixed  21 

synovial  juice  of 21 

the  shoulder 21,  74 

wrist 22,  74 

Knee,  influence  on  suiface  of  bones  of  . 117 

joint 23,  Q2 

Knee-pan 23,  92 

Knee,  skin  over  the 1 1 1 

Knuckle  joints 85 

Landmarks  of  the  abdomen 57 

Larynx,  the 45 

Laughing  muscles 38 

Leg  bones,  influence  on  surface  of  ...  118 

calf  of 107 

muscles  of  the  back  of 107 

muscles  on  the  front  of 105 

muscles  on  the  outer  side  of  ....  106 

skin  over  the 1 1 1 

Ligament,  annular no 

annular,  of  wrist 86 

ilio-femoral 97 

of  ankle  joint no 

of  Poupart 58 

Y-shaped 97 

Ligamentum  nuchae 44,  65 

Liivea  alba 59 

aspera 92 

cephalica 87 

hepatica  87 

mensalis 87 

semilunaris 59 

1 


PAGE 

Linea  transversm . . . 59 

vitalis  87 

Lips,  facial  portion  of 36 

labial  portion  of 36 

the 36 

Lumbar  fascia 66 

Malleolus,  external 94 

internal 93 

Mammary  glands 55 

Melancholy 38 

Membrane,  interosseous  ...  22,  23,  73,  94 

Meta-carpus,  the 73 

Meta-tarsus,  the 94 

Mouth,  orbicular  muscle  of 36 

Mowing 59 

Muscle  or  muscles — 

abductor  hallucis 109 

abductor  minimi  digit!  . . . .86,110 

abductor  pollicis 85 

about  the  hip  joint 98 

about  the  mouth 36 

adductor  brevis 103 

adductor  longus 103 

adductor  magnus 103 

adductor  obliquus  hallucis  ...  no 

adductor  pollicis 85 

biceps 76 

biceps  femoris 104 

brachialis  anticus 77 

buccinator 38 

compressor 32 

complexus 48,  65 

coraco  brachialis 77 

corrugator 33 

crureus 102 

deltoid 75 

depressor 32,  38 

digastric 45 

dilator 32 

dorsal  interosseous 108 

elevator  of  the  eye-lids 33 

elevator  of  the  wing  of  the  nose  . 36 

energy  of 18 

erector  spinae,  mass  of 66 


Index. 


TAGR 

Muscle  or  muscles — 

extensor  brevis  digitorum  . . . io8 

extensor  carpi  brevior  . . . . 8i 

extensor  carpi longior  8i 

extensor  carpi  ulnaris 82 

extensor  communis  digitorum  . 82 

extensor  indicis 83 

extensor  longus  digitorum  . . . 105 

extensor  longus  hallucis  ....  106 

extensor  minimi  digiti 82 

extensor  of  the  thumb 83 

extensor  oblique 58 

extensor  quadriceps lOi 

flexor  accessorius 109 

flexor  brevis  digitorum 109 

flexor  brevis  hallucis 109 

flexor  brevis  minimi  digi'.i  . . 86,  1 10 

flexor  brevis  pollicis 85 

flexor  carpi  radialis 79 

flexor  carpi  ulnaris 80 

flexor  longus  digitorum 108 

flexor  longus  pollicis 81 

flexor  longus  hallucis 108 

flexor  longus  profundus  digitorum  80 

flexor  longus  sublimis  digitorum  . 80 

frontal 31 

frowning 33 

gastrocnemius 107 

gluteii 98 

gluteus  maximus 98 

gluteus  medius 99 

gluteus  minimus 99 

gracilis 103 

hamstring  . . .' 104 

iliacus 61 

ilio-costalis 66 

infra-spinatus 75 

influence  on  surface  form  . . . . 119 

in  rigor  mortis 18 

intercostal 53 

internal  oblique 58 

interosseous 108 

interosseous  of  hand 84 

latissimus  dorsi 64 

laughing 38 


PACK 

Muscle  or  muscles — 

levator  anguli  scapukc 65 

longissimus  dorsi 66 

longus  colli 48 

masseter 42 

multifidus 67 

obturator  externus 100 

obturator  internus 100 

occipital 31 

occipito  frontalis 31 

of  expression 31 

of  the  abdominal  wall 58 

of  the  arm 76 

of  the  back 63 

of  the  ball  of  the  little  finger  , . 86 

of  the  back  of  the  leg 107 

of  the  calf  of  the  leg 107 

of  the  ear 41 

of  the  eye-balls 40 

of  the  face 31 

of  the  fore-arm 79 

of  the  head 31 

of  the  intellectual  expressions  . . 37 

of,  the  nose 32 

of  the  scapula 74 

of  the  thigh 100 

omo-hyoid 46 

on  front  of  leg 105 

on  outer  side  of  leg 106 

opponens  minimi  digiii  . . . . 86,  1 10 

opponens  pollicis 85 

orbicular 33 

orbicular  of  the  mouth 36 

palmar  interosseous 84 

palmaris  longus 79 

pectineus 103 

pectoralis  major 54 

pectoralis  minor  . . • 54 

peculiarly  animal 37 

peroneus  brevis 106 

peroneus longus  106 

peroneus  tertius 106 

plantar  interosseous  108 

plantaris 107 

platysma 38,  47 


139 


Index. 


PAGE 

Muscle  or  muscles — 

pronator  radii  teres 79 

pronator  quadratis 81 

psoas ' 61 

pyramidal  of  the  nose 32 

pyramidales 59 

pyriformis 99 

quadratus  femoris ico 

quadratus  lumborum Ci 

recti,  of  abdomen 59 

rectus  femoris 102 

rhomboideus,  tire 65 

sartorius 101 

scalene 48 

semi-membranosus 104 

semi-spinalis 67 

semi-tendinosus 104 

serratus  magnus 56 

serratus  posticus  inferior  ....  66 

serratus  posticus  superior ....  66 

soleus 107 

splenius 48,  65 

sterno-cleido-mastoid 47 

sterno-hyoid 45 

sterno-thyroid 45 

subclavius 54 

supinator  brevis 83 

supinator  radii  longus 81 

supra  spinatus 74 

temporal 42 

tensor  fascia; 100 

teres  major 75 

teres  minor 75 

the  anconeus 83 

the  lumbricales 84 

tibialis  anticus 105 

tibialis  posticus 108 

tissue 17 

trachelo-mastoid 48,  65 

transversalis 39 

transversalis  colli 65 

transversalis  pedis no 

trapezius 64 

triceps 77 

vastus  externus 102 


PAGB 

Muscle  or  muscles — 

vastus  internus •.  . 102 

zygomatic  major 37 

zygomatic  minor 37 

Nails,  tlie 88 

Nasal  bones 27 

Navel,  the 60 

Neck,  skeleton  of  the 43 

skin  of  the 46 

surface  forms  of 48 

ttie 43 

Nipples,  position  of 55 

Nose,  muscles  of ' . 32 

the 39 

Nostrils,  dilaters  of 32 

the 32 

Palm  of  the  hand 87 

Patella ' 25,  92 

PeK’ic  girdle 89,  n 3 

Pelvis,  influence  on  surface 117 

of  female 90 

of  male 90 

the 89 

Peri-cranium 31 

Phalanges  of  toes 95 

the 7 3,  74,  94 

Plantar  fascia no 

Popliteal  space,  the 105 

Posture,  the  kneeling 124 

the  recumbent 125 

the  sitting 124 

the  upright 123 

the 123 

Poupart’s  ligament 58 

Pouting 37 

Pride 33 

Process,  the  mastoid 26 

Progression,  jumping 128 

movements  of 127 

running 128 

swimming 128 

walking 127 

Prominence,  external 26 


140 


Index. 


ir 


Proportions  of  the  human  figure  ....  129 

rules  of ^30 


Respiration,  abdominal  . 

thoracic  . . 
Ribs,  articulation  of  . . 

false 

the 

true 


53 

53 

52 

52 

51 

52 


Sarcasm.' 

Scalp,  hairs  of 32 

Scapula,  muscles  of 74 

Scapulae,  relations  of ^3 

Scorn ...  3f^ 

Shaft,  humero-ulnar 73 

Shame 

Shoulder-blades 7°  | 

girdle 7^ 

girdle  influence  on  surface  . . 116 

joint 21,  74 

skin  over  the 7^3 

Shyness 4^ 

Skeleton,  consideration  of  the  entire  . . lit 

influence  of  on  surface  form  . 115 

landmarks  of 19 

of  the  face 26 

of  the  foot 94  I 

of  the  hand 73  i 

of  the  lower  extremity  ...  91 

of  the  neck 43 

of  the  thorax 5 1 

of  the  upper  extremity  ...  69  i 

the 19 

the  artificial 20 

the  natural 20 

Skin,  covering  the  head 32 

of  the  back 67 

of  the  eye-lids 34 

of  the  face 39 

over  the  abdomen 60 

over  the  back  of  the  hand  ....  87 

over  the  buttocks 100 

over  the  elbow 78 

over  the  foot 1 1 1 


Skin,  over  the  leg • 

over  the  knee 

over  the  neck  

over  the  nose  

over  the  shoulder 

over  the  thigh 

over  the  thorax 

over  the  wrist 

the 

Skull,  the 

the  entire 

Sleep,  nostrils  in 

Spaces,  intercostal  

Spinal  column 

column,  movements  of  ...  . 
Sternum,  cuneiform  process  of  . . . . 

the 

Stomach,  pit  of 

Surface  form,  depending  on  skeleton  . 

influence  of  muscles  on 
of  antique  statues  . . . 
uf  the  abdomen  . . . . 

of  the  neck 

of  the  thorax 

Surface  marking  of  the  arm 

of  the  back 

of  the  hand  

of  the  wrist 

Surprise 

Sutures,  the 

Swallowing 

Symmetry 

1 

I Tarsus,  the 

Teeth,  bicuspid  in  relation  to  angles 

mouth 

Tendon  of  Achilles 

the 

Thigh  bone,  influence  on  surface  . . 

Thigh,  deep  fascia  of 

fascia  lata  of 

muscles  of 

skin  over  

Thorax,  muscles  of 

skeleton  of 


1 1 1 
1 1 1 
46 
33 

78 

105 

55 

87 

>7 

25 

28 

32 

52 

49 

50 

51 

51 

57 

• '15 

. 119 
130 
60 
. 48 

• 55 

. 78 

• 67 

. 87 

. 86 
32,  47 

• 25 
46 

. 1 30 

• 94 

)f 

• 37 
. 107 

• 17 

117 
. 105 
. 105 
. 100 
. 105 

• 54 

• 51 


141 


Index. 


PAGE 

Thorax,  skin  over  the 55 

surface  forms  of 55,  115 

the 51 

Thumb,  ball  of 85 

extensor  muscles  of 83 

folds  of 88 

joint  of 22 

shape  of 1 17 

Trachea,  the 44,  45 

Trunk 49 

Umbilicus,  the 60 

Vein,  external  jugular 47 

superficial  at  elbow 78 

Vertebra,  Atlas 43 

prominens 43 

the 50 


PACE 

Vertebra,  thoracic  53 

Vertebral  column 63 

Voice,  organ  of 45 

Vomer,  the 27 

Waist,  the 57 

Walking 127 

down  stairs 128 

up  stairs 127 

Wrist,  annular  ligaments  of 86 

joint 22,  74 

skin  over  the 87 

surface  markings  of 86 

Yawning 46 

Zygoma,  the . 26*4 


r 


J 


